levation. While the city was filled with mourning and consternation, he caused himself to be elected dictator for an unlimited time (B. c. 81); but, to the great astonishment of every body, he resigned his power at the end of three years, and retired into private life. He died soon after (B. c. 77) of a loathsome disease, brought on by intemperance and debauchery.

power

HE consul Lepidus attempted to seize the which Sylla had abdicated; he was declared a public enemy, defeated in the field, forsaken by his friends, and abandoned by his faithless wife: he sunk under this complication of misfortunes, and died of a broken heart. But though the senate escaped this danger, they were alarmed by the rapid progress of the Marian faction in Spain (B. c. 76), where Sertorius had collected a powerful army from the relics of that party. After some deliberation, the management of this war was intrusted to Pompey, afterwards surnamed the Great, though he had not yet attained the consular age, and was still a simple Roman knight. Sertorius proved more than a match for

the young general, defeating him in several engagements: but treachery proved more efficacious than valour; the bold adventurer was murdered by Perpenna (B. c. 73); and the insurgents, deprived of their able leader, were finally subdued by Pompey (B. c. 70). Before the Spanish war was terminated, Italy was thrown into confusion by the daring revolt of Spartacus (B. c. 72). This dangerous insurgent, with about eighty companions, forced his way out of a school for training gladiators at Capua, and resolved, instead of hazarding his life in the arena, for the brutal sport of the Roman populace, to make war on the republic. Two brilliant victories so established his fame, that the slaves, deserting their masters, flocked to his standard from all quarters, and he soon found himself at the head of ten thousand men. Fresh successes now crowned his arms; prætors and consuls were sent against him, and defeated; his forces rapidly increased to one hundred and twenty thousand; and he even attempted to make himself master of Rome. At length the prætor Crassus succeeded in suppressing this formidable revolt; but his victory was chiefly owing to the want of union and discipline in the army of the insurgents (B. c. 70). Spartacus himself fell in the field, and great numbers of his followers were crucified by the barbarous conquerors.

Crassus and Pompey were chosen consuls the next year: both were ambitious of supreme power, and both began to pay their court to the people; Crassus by largesses of corn and money, Pompey by restoring the tribunitian power, and repealing many of the unpopular laws of Sylla. These measures gave Pompey so much influence, that he was chosen to manage the war against the Cilician pirates, in spite of the most vigorous opposition of the senators; and to this commission there were added, by the Manilian law, the government of Asia, and the entire management of the war against Mithridates (B. c. 65). Little did the tribune Manilius foresee that he was placing the whole power of the Roman empire in the hands of a man who would soon become the most strenuous supporter of the senate.

CICERO.

OMPEY made a judicious use of the power with which he was intrusted; he subdued Mithridates, and established the sway of the Romans over the greater part of western Asia. But while he

was thus engaged gathering laurels in the remote east, the republic narrowly escaped destruction from the conspiracy of Catiline (B. c. 62). The original contriver of this celebrated conspiracy, Sergius Catiline, was a young man of noble birth, sullied, however, by the most infamous debauchery and crimes. The recent examples of Marius and Sylla stimulated him to attempt making himself master of his country; and he found many associates among

the profligate young nobles, whom their riotous extravagance had overwhelmed with a load of debt. The great impediment to the success of the plans of the conspirators was the vigilance of the consul Cicero, who had raised himself to the highest rank in the state by his consummate eloquence and great skill in political affairs. His murder was deemed a necessary preliminary to any open efforts; but Cicero received secret warnings of his danger from Curius, one of the conspirators, whose mistress had been bribed by the consul; and he was thus enabled to disconcert all the plans of Catiline. While the city was alarmed by rumours of danger, Catiline had the hardihood to present himself in the senate-house, where Cicero pronounced so dreadful an invective against him, that the hardened conspirator was unable to reply, and fled from the city to commence open war.

In the mean time his associates in the city attempted to form an alliance with the Allobroges, a people of Gaul that had sent ambassadors to petition the senate for some relief from the load of debt with which their nation was oppressed. These ambassadors betrayed the negotiations to Cicero, who took his measures so well, that he arrested the chiefs of the conspiracy with the proofs of their guilt on their persons. After a warm debate in the senate, it was resolved that the traitors should be put to death; Julius Cæsar, who was now fast rising into notice as the chief of the popular party, protesting almost alone against the dangerous precedent of violating the Porcian law, which forbade the capital punishment of a Roman citizen. When Catiline heard of the fate of his associates, he attempted to lead his forces into Gaul; but he was overtaken by a consular army, defeated, and slain. So pleased were the senate with the conduct of Cicero on this occasion, that they gave him the honourable title of FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY.

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OMPEY soon afterwards returned to Rome, and the old jealousies between him and Crassus were renewed; but Julius Cæsar, whose eminent abilities were now known and valued, succeed

ed in bringing the rivals together, and uniting them with himself in a partnership of power, generally called "the first triumvirate" (B. c. 59). They were supported in this project by the infamous Clodius, whose sole aim was to be revenged on Cicero for having given evi dence against him on a criminal trial. To wreak his vengeance more effectually, he had himself transferred from the patrician order to the plebeian; and then becoming a candidate for the tribuneship, was elected without much opposition. By the exertions of Clodius, Cicero was driven into banishment; but he was honourably recalled after a year's exile, and restored to his dignity and estates. While Clodius, by his violence, kept the city in constant agitation,