WISCONSIN

JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.

APRIL, 1874

Could a man be secure
That his life would endure,

As of old for a thousand long years,
What things he might know!
What deeds he might do!

And all without hurry or care!

But we that have but span-long lives ** st ever bear in mind our limited time acquisition."

tem, can not be grasped by the intellect | or the learning of it is valuable. We of a child. "The scientific discoverer must also show that the knowledge or the does the work, and when it is done the learning of it is of at least as great value schoolboy is called in to witness the as that of anything else that might be result, to learn its chief features by heart, taught in the same time. "Had we time and to repeat them when called upon, just to master all subjects we need not be paras he is called on to name the mothers of ticular. To quote the old songthe patriarchs, or to give an account of the Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great." (Pall Mall Gazette, Feb. 8, 1867.) This, however, affords but scanty training for the mind. We want to draw out the child's interests, and to direct them to worthy objects. We want not only to teach him, but to enable and encourage him to teach himself; and, if following Mr. Spencer's advice, we make him get up the species of plants, "which amount to some 320,000," and the varied forms of animal life, which are "estimated at some 2,000,000," we may, as Mr. Spencer tells us, have strengthened his memory as effectually as by teaching him languages; but the pupil will, perhaps, have no great reason to rejoice over his escape from the horrors of the "As in Præsenti," and "Propria quæ Maribus." The consequences will be the same in both cases. We shall disgust the great majority of our scholars with the acquisition of knowledge, and with the use of the powers of their mind. Whether, therefore, we adopt or reject Mr. Spencer's conclusion, that there is one sort of knowledge which is universally the most valuable, I think we must deny that there is one sort of knowledge which is universally, and at every stage in education, the best adapted to develop the intellectual But, if there were (which is far from faculties. Mr. Spencer himself acknowl-being the case) a well-defined and welledges this elsewhere. "There is," says established science in each of these dehe, “a certain sequence in which the partments, those sciences would not be faculties spontaneously develop, and a certain kind of knowledge, which each requires during its development. It is for us to ascertain this sequence, and supply this knowledge."

Mr. Spencer discusses more fully "the relative value of knowledges," and this is a subject which has hitherto not met with the attention it deserves. It is not sufficient for us to prove of any subject taught in our schools that the knowledge

To test the value of the learning impar ed in education we must look to the end of education. This Mr. Spencer defines as follows: "To prepare us for complete living, is the function which education has to discharge, and the only rational mode of judging of an educational course is to judge in what degree it discharges such function." For complete living we must know "in what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a citizen; in what way to utilize those sources of happiness which nature supplies-how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others." There are a number of sciences, says Mr. Spencer, which throw light on these subjects. It should, therefore, be the business of education to impart these sciences.

understandable by children, nor would any individual have time to master the whole of them, or even "a due propor tion of each." The utmost that could be attempted would be to give young people some knowledge of the results of such sciences and the rules derived from them. But to this Mr. Spencer would object that it would tend, like the learning of languages, "to increase the already undue respect for authority."

To consider Mr. Spencer's divisions in | does not tell us how the knowledge of the detail, we come first to knowledge that leads to self-preservation:

normal state of pulsation is useful; how, to use his own test, "it influences action." "Happily, that all-important part of ed. However, whether we admit the claims of ucation which goes to secure direct self- physiology or not, we shall probably allow preservation, is, in part, already provided that there are certain physiological facts for. Too momentous to be left to our and rules of health, the knowledge of blundering, Nature takes it into her own which would be of great practical value, hands." But Mr. Spencer warns us and should therefore be imparted to every against such thwartings of Nature as one. Here the doctor should come to the t by which "stupid schoolmistresses schoolmaster's assistance, and give him a monly prevent the girls in their manual from which to teach them. ge from the spontaneous physical Next in order of importance, according tivities they would indulge in, and so to Mr. Spencer, comes the knowledge ender them comparatively incapable of taking care of themselves in circumstances of peril."

which aids indirect self-preservation by facilitating the gaining of a livelihood. Here Mr. Spencer thinks it necessary to Indirect self-preservation, Mr. Spencer prove to us that such sciences as mathebelieves, may be much assisted by a matics, physics and biology underlie all knowledge of physiology. "Diseases are the practical arts and business of life. No often contracted, our members are often one will think of joining issue with him injured, by causes which superior knowl- on this point; but the question still reedge would avoid." I believe these are mains, what influence should this have not the only grounds on which the advo- on education? "Teach science," says Mr. cates of physiology urge its claim to be Spencer. "A grounding in science is of admitted into the curriculum; but these, great importance, both because it preif they can be established, are no doubt pares for all this [business of life], and very important. Is it true, however, that because rational knowledge has an imdoctors preserve their own life and health mense superiority over empirical knowl. by their knowledge of physiology? I edge." Should we teach all sciences to think the matter is open to dispute. Mr. Spencer does not. He says very truly, that many a man would blush if convicted of ignorance about the pronunciation of Iphigenia, or about the labors of Hercules, who, nevertheless, would not scruple to acknowledge that he had never heard of the Eustachian tubes, and could not tell the normal rate of pulsation. "So terribly," adds Mr. Spencer, "in our education does the ornamental override the useful!" But this is begging the question. At present classics form part of the instruction given to every gentleman, and physiology does not. This is the simpler form of Mr. Spencer's assertion about the labors of Hercules, and the Eustachian tubes, and no one denies it. But we are not so well agreed on the comparative value of these subjects. In his Address at St. Andrews, Mr. Mill showed that he at least was not convinced of the uselessness of classics, and Mr. Spencer

everybody? This is clearly impossible. Should we, then, decide for each child what is to be his particular means of money-getting, and instruct him in those sciences which will be most useful in that business or profession? In other words, should we have a separate school for each calling? The only attempt of this kind which has been made is, I believe, the institution of Handelschulen (commercial schools) in Germany. In them, youths of fifteen or sixteen enter for a course of two or three years instruction which aims exclusively at fitting them for commerce. But, in this case, their general education is already finish. ed. With us, the lad commonly goes to work at the business itself quite as soon as he has the faculties for learning the sciences connected with it. If the school sends him to it with a love of knowledge, this will be of more value to him than any special information.

As Mr. Spencer is here considering sci- | empirical knowledge. And, as a part of ence merely with reference to its import- their education, boys should be taught to ance in earning a livelihood, it is not distinguish the one from the other, and beside the question to remark, that in a to desire rational knowledge. Much great number of instances, the knowl- might be done in this way by teaching, edge of the science which underlies an not all the sciences and nothing else, but operation confers no practical ability the main principles of some one science, whatever. No one sees the better for un- which would enable the more intelligent derstanding the structure of the eye and boys to understand and appreciate the the undulatory theory of light. In swim- value of "a rational explanation of pheming and rowing, a senior wrangler has nomena." I believe this addition to what no advantage over a man who is entirely was before a literary education has already ignorant about the laws of fluid pressure. been made in some of our leading schools, As far as money-getting is concerned, as Harrow, Rugby, and the City of Lonthen, science will not be found to be uni- don.* versally servieeable. Mr. Spencer gives instances, indeed, where science would prevent very expensive blundering; but the true inference is, not that the blunderers should learn science, but that they should mind their own business, and take the opinion of scientific men about theirs. "Here is a mine," says he, "in the sinking of which many shareholders ruined themselves, from not knowing that a certain fossil belonged to the old red sandstone, below which no coal is found." Perhaps they were misled by the little knowledge which Pope tells us is a dangerous thing. If they had been entirely ignorant, they would surely have called in a professional geologist, whose opinion would have been more valuable than their own, even though geology had taken the place of classics in their schooling. "Daily are men induced to aid in carry. ing out inventions which a mere tyro in science could show to be futile." But these are men whose function it would always be to lose money, not make it, whatever you might teach them.* I have great doubt, therefore, whether the learning of sciences will ever be found a ready way of making a fortune. But directly we get beyond the region of pounds, shillings, and pence, I agree most cordially with Mr. Spencer that a rational knowledge has an immense superiority over

*"The brewer," as Mr. Spencer himself tells us, "if his business is very extensive, finds it pay to keep a chemist on the premises"-pay a good deal better, I suspect, than learning chemistry at school.

Next, Mr. Spencer would have instruc tion in the proper way of rearing offspring form a part of his curriculum. There can be no question of the importance of this knowledge, and all that Mr. Spencer says of the lamentable ignorance of parents is, unfortunately, no less undeniable. But could this knowledge be imparted carly in life? Young people would naturally take but little interest in it. It is by parents, or at least by those who have some notion of the parental responsibility, that this knowledge should be sought. The best way in which we can teach the young will be so to bring them up that, when they themselves have to rear chil dren, the remembrance of their own youth may be a guide and not a beacon to them. But more knowledge than this is neces sary, and I differ from Mr. Spencer only as to the proper time for acquiring it.

Next comes the knowledge which fits a man for the discharge of his functions as a citizen, a subject to which Dr. Arnold attached great importance at the time of

* Mr. Helps, who by taste and talent is eminently literary, put in this claim for science more than

twenty years ago. "The higher branches of method can not be taught at first; but you may begin by teaching orderliness of mind. Collecting, classifying, contrasting, and weighing facts are

some of the processes by which method is taught.

Scientific method may be acquired without many sciences being learnt; but one of two great branches of science must be accurately known." (Friends in Council, Education.) Mr. Helps, though by his delightful style he never gives the reader any notion of over-compression, has told us more truth about education in a few pages than one sometimes meets with in a complete treatise.

the first Reform Bill, and which deserves | present, and prevents his mistaking conour attention all the more in consequence ventionalities for laws of nature.

It

I think, therefore, that the works of great historians and biographers, which we already possess, may be usefully employed in education. It is difficult to estimate the value of history according to Mr. Spencer's idea, as it has yet to be written; but I venture to predict that if boys, instead of reading about the history of nations in connection with their leading men, are required to study only "the progress of society," the subject will at once lose all its interest for them; and, perhaps, many of the facts communicated will prove, after all, no less unorganizable than the fifteen decisive battles.

of the second. But what knowledge are brings home to him, in all its force, the we to give for this purpose? One of the truth that "there are also people beyond subjects which seem especially suitable the mountain” (Hinter dem Berge sind is history. But history, as it is now writ- auch Leute), that there are higher interests ten, is, according to Mr. Spencer, useless. in the world than his own business con"It does not illustrate the right principles cerns, and nobler men than himself, or of political action." "The great mass of the best of his acquaintance. It teaches historical facts are facts from which no him what men are capable of, and thus conclusions can be drawn-unorganizable gives him juster views of his race. And facts, and, therefore, facts of no service in to have all this truth worked into the establishing principles of conduct, which mind contributes, perhaps, as largely to is the chief use of facts. Read them if "complete living" as knowledge of the you like for amusement, but do not flatter Eustachian tubes, or of the normal rate yourself they are instructive." About of pulsation.* the right principles of political action we seems completely at sea that, perhaps, the main thing we can do for the young is to point out to them the responsibilities which will hereafter devolve upon them, and the danger, both to the state and the individual, of just echoing the popular cry, without the least reflection, according to our present usage. But history, as it is now written by great historians, may be of some use in training the young both to be citizens and men. "Reading about the fifteen decisive battles, or all the bat tles in history, would not make a man a more judicious voter at the next election," says Mr. Spencer. But is this true? The knowledge of what has been done in other times, even by those whose coronation renders them so distasteful to Mr. Spencer, is knowledge which influences a man's whole character, and may, therefore, affect particular acts, even when we are unable to trace the connection. As it has been often said, the effect of reading history is, in some respects, the same as that of traveling. Any one in Mr. Spencer's vein might ask, "If a man has seen the Alps, of what use will that be to him in weighing out groceries ?" Directly, none at all; but indirectly, much. The traveled man will not be such a slave to the petty views and customs of his trade as the man who looks on his county town as the center of the universe. The study of history, like traveling, widens the student's mental vision, frees him, to some extent, from the bondage of the

Lastly, we come to that "remaining division of human life which includes the relaxations and amusements filling leisure hours." Mr. Spencer assures us that he will yield to none in the value he attaches to æsthetic culture and its pleasures; but if he does not value the fine arts less, he values science more; and painting, music, and poetry would receive as little encouragement under his dictatorship as in the days of the Commonwealth. As the fine arts and belles*Mr. Mill (who, by the way, wonld leave history entirely to private reading, Address at St. Andrews, p. 21) has pointed out that "there is not a fact in history which is not susceptible of as many different explanations as there are possible theories of human affairs," and that "history is not the foundation but the verification of the social science." But he admits that "what we know of former ages, like what we know of foreign na

"

by correcting the narrowness incident to personal experience." (Dissertations, vol. i., p. 112.)

tions, is, with all its imperfectness, of much use,