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pounds and drawn off, decolorized, and refined in much the same manner as the juice of the sugar cane.

The demand for starch sugar for candies and jellies, and of glucose for syrups, has caused an enormous production in this country, irrespective of its use in beers.

Confectionery is usually preferred in a soft or amorphous condition; rock candy or crystallized sugar is rarely called for. It is for this reason that sugar for making candy is inverted, or changed into reducing sugar (mixture of dextrose, or grape sugar, and levulose or fruit sugar), by boiling with some acid, usually cream of tartar or tartaric acid.

The "fondant" of chocolate creams and bonbons

may be made in this way. Gums and starch pastes, even clay, may be used to dilute the crystals of sugar and keep the mass agreeably soft, but commercial glucose is easier to work, healthful, cheap, and pure, therefore is largely used in modern candy making. The pastes and cheap gum drops are made of starch, paste, and glucose. Marshmallows have gelatin added.

It requires two and one-half times as much glucose as cane sugar to sweeten the same volume of water. This may partly explain the increasing pounds of candy consumed.

Grape sugar is present in the sacs of flowers, and is the source of honey. It can be readily obtained from grapes by expressing the juice, and after neutralization of the acids the syrup may be refined and crystallized as in the case of beet sugar, but it crystallizes with difficulty and is apt to take on water and become moist.

It is accompanied by the non-crystallizable sugar, levulose. Grape sugar made from grapes is too costly for ordinary use. In jellies and preserved fruits a large portion of the cane sugar, or sucrose, is changed into glucose during the heating with the acid juice of the fruit.

The following table1 shows the proportion of sugars and acid in various fruits:

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Not only may sucrose be converted, but all woody fiber or cellulose can be acted upon by acids so as to form glucose; hence any woody substance, as sawdust, cotton, etc, can be converted into glucose; but this is not done for the purpose of sugar manufacture, since corn meal is much more available. Such waste product may be used for spirits.

1 1 Buignet (Ann. Chim. Phys., 59, p. 233), taken from Leach, p. 462.

Milk sugar, or lactose (C12H22O11 H2O), is prepared from skim milk, a waste product of the dairies. The sugar of milk is a valuable product for use in the preparation of modified milk for infants; in medicine it is of importance as an excipient, or vehicle for active remedies; and in certain diseases it is a valuable nutrient.

There is little probability that the use of milk sugar will ever become as universal as that of the other forms of sugar, for the price, from twenty to forty cents a pound, is prohibitive.

The chief adulterants to be looked for in milk sugar are grape sugar and cane sugar.

HONEY

The United States produces the most honey, the annual production as reported in 1900 being 61,196,160 pounds.

It is said, especially by English analysts, that much American honey is entirely artificial, that the comb is made of paraffin and filled with glucose syrup. Two simple tests will show whether this is the case. Normal honey, being collected by the bees from flowers, will contain many pollen grains. The absence of these is a suspicious circumstance. Beeswax is blackened by warm sulphuric acid, while paraffin is not affected.

The most common adulterants of honey are cane sugar and commercial glucose. Gelatin is also found. Sometimes bees are fed on cane sugar or glucose, which is placed near the hives. In such a case they may supply the adulterants.

The presence of the comb in honey is by no means

a proof of genuineness. In at least one sample the Massachusetts State Board of Health found pieces of artificial comb and a dead bee in a mixture of glucose and cane sugar.

In the Bulletin of the New Hampshire Board for July, 1906, a table is given showing that out of thirteen samples examined, only seven were of legal quality.

ADULTERATION

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The adulteration of sugar may be considered under three heads. First, the addition of insoluble substances, such as marble dust, which is sometimes found advertised among the supplies of confectioners. It is said that sand used to be added. Second, the foreign substances left in from the process of manufacture, such as ultramarine, to give the requisite blue color. were ever found in sugar, it would be in this list. Third, and most frequent at present, is the addition of glucose, or corn sugar, which is much cheaper, but is less sweet, partly on account of its lesser solubility in water. One quart of water dissolves three pounds of cane sugar, but only one or one and a half pounds of grape sugar.

Sugar may be so manipulated in refining as to be white and crystalline, and yet contain quite a percentage of moisture and syrup. Such sugar cakes together on standing. The presence of this moisture may be regarded as an adulteration.

The adulteration of the granulated and powdered sugars, at least those sold in the Eastern States, is not as extensive as has been supposed. Of the sam

ples examined by the writer in 1879, not one of seventy-three samples from Massachusetts, not one of five from New York, and only one of twelve from Chicago was adulterated.

Today (1906) granulated sugar is probably the purest food product on the market.

Syrups, on the contrary, are very liable to be not what they seem. Dr. Kedzie, of Michigan, in 1879 found only one out of twenty-one genuine.

The Kansas Board of Health, in its Bulletin for June, 1906, states the percentage of adulteration in maple sugar and syrup as 95.8.

The July Bulletin from New Hampshire, the home of the sugar maple, gives only twenty-one samples of legal quality out of forty-one examined.

The usual adulterants of maple syrup are golden or drip syrup, commercial glucose, molasses, and refined

sugar.

The ordinary table syrup is chiefly glucose or corn syrup.

CANDY

The enormous extension of the candy trade demands attention both from the hygienic and the economic point of view. Some years ago Professor Simon N. Patten warned us that we were being eliminated on a sugar diet women particularly. With the best granulated sugar at say six cents a pound, and commercial glucose at about half that price, the sale of candies at forty to eighty cents means large profits, which are to a great extent used up in fancy boxes, high rents, and expert

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