on its bottom end, and after having ascertained and marked the north and south line on top end. Split the disk with a sharp hacking knife and mallet along this line. Split from outside of the west half of the disk enough wood to leave a prism 4 inches thick. Split from the east half two wedges with one plane in the south-north line and with their wedge line through the heart of the disk; the outer arc to be about 4 inches.

Mark each piece as split off on top side with number of the tree (Arabic), the serial number (Roman) of the disk in the tree, beginning with No. 1 at butt log, and with a distinct N or S, the north or south position of the piece as in the tree.

Write the same data on a card and tack it to the piece to which they belong. Whenever disk pieces are small enough for mailing, leave them entire. Whenever they can not be shipped by mail, leave disks entire, wrap in paper, and ship by express.

(7) Weigh each piece and record weight in notebook, using the same marks as appear on the pieces. (8) Wrap each piece in two sheets of heavy wrapping paper and tie securely.

(9) Mark on the newly cut bottom end of each log with a heavy pencil a north and south line, writing N on the north and S on the south side of the log, large and distinct. Also mark centrally with an Arabic number on each log the number of the tree in the series, and with a distinct Roman number the serial number of the log in the tree, counting the butt log as first.

Tack to the butt end of each log securely a card (centrally), on which is written name of tree, species, locality from which tree is taken, denoted by the letter corresponding to that used in the notebook, number of tree, and section. This card or tag is intended to insure a record of each log in addition to the marking already made.

(10) Limb wood.-Having, as before noted, selected a limb, measured and recorded its distance from the butt and position on the trunk, and marked its lower side and sawed it off close to the latter, now take a disk 6 inches long from the butt end and others every 5 feet up to 2-inch diameter at the top. Number these consecutively with Roman number, calling the butt disk No. 1. Note by letters L and U the lower and upper side, as the limb appeared on the tree, and place the (Arabic) number of tree from which the limb came on each. Enforce the record by cards containing the same information, as done in case of other disk pieces.

Weigh and wrap and mail in the same manner as the other pieces.

(11) Check trees.-From the "check tree," which is to be the very best to be found, only three disks or three logs are to be secured, from the butt, middle, and top part of the tree Absolutely clear timber, free from all knots and blemishes, is to be chosen. The disk pieces are to be of the same size, and to be secured in the same manner as those described before; the logs to be not necessarily more than 6 feet; less if not enough clear timber can be found.

Note the position of each piece in the tree by measuring from the butt cut to the butt end of the piece.

Prepare and mark all pieces in the same manner as those from other trees, adding, however, to each piece a mark to denote it as coming from the "check tree."

(12) Young trees.-Select six trees from each site approximately of following sizes: Two, 6-inch diameter, breast high; two, 4-inch diameter, breast high; two, 2-inch diameter, breast high. Mark north and south sides and chop or saw all close to the

ground and cut each tree into following lengths: First stick, 2 feet long; second stick, 4 feet long; the remaining cuts 4 feet long up to a top end diameter of about 1 inch. Cut from the basal end of each log a disk 6 inches long. Mark and ticket butt end of each log as in case of large trees. Mark a north and south line on top end of each disk, with N and S at extremities to denote north and south sides; and also ticket with same data as given on large disk pieces. Weigh and wrap as before. Of these trees only the disk pieces are to be mailed.

F. SHIPPING TEST PIECES.

Ship all pieces without delay. To each log tack securely a shipping card (furnished), so as to cover the marking tag. The logs will go to J. B. Johnson, St. Louis, Mo. The disks and other pieces are to be mailed to F. Roth, Ann Arbor, Mich., using franks, securely pasted, for mailing, unless, as noted before, they must be sent by express.

Mail at once to the above addresses notice of each shipment, and a transcript of notes and full description to this office, from which copies will be forwarded to the recipients of the test pieces.

If free transportation is obtained from the railroad companies, special additional instructions will be given under this head.

G.-RECORDS.

Careful and accurate records are most essential to secure the success of this work. A set of specially prepared record sheets will be furnished, with instructions for their use. A transcript of the record must be sent to this office at the time of making shipment; also such notes as may seem desirable to complete the record and to give additional explanations in regard to the record and suggestions respecting the work of collecting. Original records and notes must be preserved, to avoid loss in transmission by mail.

FORM OF FIELD RECORD.

(Folder.)

Name of collector: (Charles Mohr.) Species: Pinus palustris.

STATION (denoted by capital letter): A.

State: Alabama. County: Escambia. Town: Wallace.

Longitude: 86 12'. Latitude: 31° 15'. Average altitude: 75 to 100 feet.

General configuration: Plain-hills-plateau-mountainous. General trend of valleys or hills.... Climatic features: Subtropical; mean annual temperature, 65; mean annual rainfall, 62 inches. SITE (denoted by small letter): a.

Aspect: Level-ravine-cove-bench-slope (angle approximately).

Exposure:

Soil conditions:

Elevation (above average station altitude): 125 feet.

(1) Geological formation (if known): Southern stratified drift.

(2) Mineral composition: Clay-limestone-loam-marl-sandy loam-loamy sand-sand.

(3) Surface cover: Bare-grassy-mossy. Leaf cover: Abundant-scanty-lacking.

(4) Depth of vegetable mold (humus): Absent-moderate-plenty-or give depth in inches.

(5) Grain, consistency, and admixtures: Very fine-fine-medium-coarse-porous-light-loosemoderately loose-compact-binding-stones or rock, size of..

(6) Moisture conditions: Wet-moist-fresh-dry-arid—well drained—liable to overflow-swampy-near stream or spring or other kind of water supply....

(7) Color: Ashy-gray.

(8) Depth to subsoil (if known): Shallow, 3 to 4 inches to 1 foot-1 foot to 4 feet, deep-over 4 feet, very deep-shifting.

(9) Nature of subsoil (if ascertainable): Red, ferruginous sandy loam; moderately loose, or rather slightly binding; always of some degree of dampness; of great depth.

Forest conditions: Mixed timber-pure-dense growth-moderately dense to open.

Associated species: None.

Proportions of these...

Average height: 90 feet.

Undergrowth: Scanty; in the original forest often none.

Conditions in the open: Field-pasture-lawn-clearing (how long cleared): In natural clearings untouched by fire, dense groves of second growth of the species.

Nature of soil cover (if any): Weeds-brush—sod.

STATION: A.

(Inside of folder.)

SITE: a.

SPECIES: P. palustris. TREE No. 3.

POSITION of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, note on back of sheet): In rather dense position. ORIGIN of tree (if ascertainable): Natural seedling, sprout from stump, artificial planting.

NOTE.-As much as possible make description by underscoring terms used above. Add other descriptive terms if necessary.

J.-METAL TIES FOR RAILWAYS, AND ECONOMIES IN THE USE

OF WOODEN TIES.

E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E.

Assoc. Mem. Am. Soc. Civ. Engs.—Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Engs.

The use of metal ties as a substitute for wooden ties in railway track has been practiced in foreign countries for many years on a very extensive scale and with great success, but though the matter has been given some attention in this country, very little has been done except in the way of a few small experiments. This is due in part to the general, though erroneous, idea that our still abundant timber resources are inexhaustible; and also to the comparatively high first cost of metal ties (the possible future economy resulting from their use being frequently overlooked). In fact the matter is, on the whole, regarded with indifference. Another reason for this is, perhaps, a tendency to question the application of foreign experience to American railways. There is, too, a wide impression that the use of metal ties in other countries is merely experimental and on a small scale, whereas in point of fact they have been extensively adopted for main lines carrying heavy traffic, as well as for lighter lines, and they have certainly long since passed the experimental stage. Nearly 35,000 miles of track are now laid with metal ties.

The writer has given the subject considerable attention for several years past, and in 1887 was requested by Mr. B. E. Fernow, then chief of the Division of Forestry, to make a special investigation and report thereon to the Division in the interests of the preservation of the timber resources of the country. Three reports have since been made, forming Bulletins No. 3, No. 4, and No. 9 of the Division of Forestry. The first, in 1889, was a preliminary report of progress. The second and third, issued in 1890 and 1894, were comprehensive reports, giving full particulars of foreign practice and discussing the entire subject. In both of these reports very full details were given of: (1) various forms of metal ties and their fastenings, as well as of the track of which they form a part; (2) the character of the rolling stock and traffic; (3) the results obtained from their use. As there was then no comprehensive work on the subject, special attention was given to describing the ties, fastenings, etc., in detail. The third report (1894) had a somewhat wider scope and included the use of metal tie-plates and preservative processes for increasing the life and efficiency of wooden ties.

On foreign railways the many improvements in shape, material, and manufacture of steel ties and their fastenings, and the careful investigation as to the work of maintenance, particularly since 1880, are now showing results in decidedly favorable estimates as to maintenance and renewals on railways where steel ties have been extensively and intelligently used. A large number of the important patents on steel ties have now expired and have no longer an influence on the cost of manufacture, so that the various systems can be considered purely on their merits. The consideration of the respective merits of metal and wooden ties is a very important matter in many European and other countries, where, owing to conditions of climate or to the relative cost of timber and steel, the use of metal ties may effect a direct financial economy as well as a general improvement in the track.

The subject is, perhaps, not of such immediate interest or importance in this country, where timber is still comparatively plentiful. The use of protective steel tie-plates has made the cheaper and inferior qualities of timber largely available for railway service, while the use of preservative