If you now take one of these little globules, break it on removed for use, they require no stopper, the thumb being all an anvil or stone with a hammer, and strew the particles on that is required, fig. 3. litmus paper moistened with a little distilled water, not the slightest effect of redness will be developed on the blue litmus paper. We will therefore take the fact for granted, that the powdered material in question is not an acid-I say, we will take the fact for granted, because, although the reddening of blue litmus paper is a general-it is not a universal test of acidity. There exist certain acids, neither soluble (in ordinary language) nor sour, nor capable of reddening litmus paper; but these are exceptions to a rule! The result of the combustion of iron, then, in oxygen gas is not an acid, neither is it an alkali, as you may demonstrate by comminuting another portion, and strewing it on moistened yellow turmeric paper, or moistened litmus paper previously reddened by contact with an acid. Had the substance operated with been alkaline, the turmeric paper would have been affected with a brown stain, and the reddened litmus paper would have been restored to its original blue tint. Meaning of the term Oxide.-Inasmuch as the result of burning iron in oxygen gas is neither acid nor alkaline, but is never-ing a test tube containing gas to be standing in a little water upon theless a compound of oxygen with the iron burned, we call it a plate as represented in fig. 2 (the depth of water being an oxide of iron. And here you may remember, as a rule of necessarily inconsiderable, otherwise the tube would fall), it is chemical nomenclature, that the term oxide is given to such under these circumstances impossible to remove the tube compounds of bodies with oxygen as are neither acid nor alka- directly from the saucer or plate, without spilling some of the line. Occasionally the result is of such ambiguous character gas. The proper course to be adopted is this: steadying the that one hardly knows what to call it. For example, the substance white arsenic, which has already come under our consideration, was formerly termed oxide of arsenic; it is now termed arsenious acid, because its acid characteristics, although slight, are nevertheless evident. More ambiguous is the socalled oxide of tin, or stannic acid, according to the view we choose to take of it. I allude to the white powder resulting from the action of nitric acid upon tin. Again, in the oxides of alkaline earths we have certain ambiguous results. Lime is the product of the oxidation of a metal termed calcium. Lime is, therefore, treated of as the oxide of calcium; but the oxide is so distinctly alkaline, that chemists also denominate lime" an alkaline earth." You may readily demonstrate this alkalinity of lime by touching a slip of turmeric paper, or reddened litmus paper, with a portion of lime water. The distinctive change of ( colour due to alkaline re-action will be immediately recognisable. Having examined the solid result of the combustion of iron in oxygen, let us next see whether the gaseous contents of the jar manifest any peculiarity. For this purpose, portions of the gas may be transferred by means of the pneumatic trough, Fig. 1. tube with the right hand, support the plate by means of the left; immerse plate and tube in the pneumatic trough, allow the plate to sink, secure the mouth of the tube with the thumb, and withdraw it, fig. 4. On testing successive tubes filled with the air remaining in the vessel used for the combustion of iron, you will find that it contains no new principle; it has neither taste nor smell, does not whiten lime-water, or but faintly whitens it, does not turn blue litmus paper red, red litmus paper blue, nor yellow turmeric paper brown. An ignited taper burns in it without any peculiarity. The gas demeans itself like atmospheric air. Atmospheric air indeed it is; consequently we arrive at the final deduction, that the sole result of the combustion of iron in oxygen gas is a solid, nothing but a solid-the black oxide of iron. Examination of the Results of Charcoal burned in Oxygen.-The first point deserving your attention as regards this result is the total absence of solid products. Iron generated heavy, hard-metallic-looking globules; charcoal generated none of these. The products of its combustion are totally invisible, so that if one piece of charcoal had been sufficiently small in comparison with the amount of oxygen employed, and sufficiently free from all impure contaminations, it would have entirely disappeared. Do not think, however, that the charcoal has been destroyed-lost by this combustive energy. No element is ever lost. All the fires which have burned since the creation of our globe, all the waters that have ever flowed, all the manifold agencies of death and decay, have not altered by the smallest fraction of a grain the original weight of the world's material elements. Under the three forms of solid, liquid, and gas, they still exist, and must continue to exist to the end of time The sole result of the combustion of charcoal in oxygen is, then, a gas. Now, consider well the consequences of its gaseous nature. Carbon, you are aware, is especially the combustible of man; either as wood or coal, or charcoal, or oil, or coal gas, carbon, alone or in combination with hydrogen, I repeat, is our chief combustible. Only contemplate what the result would have been, if the product of the combustion of charcoal had been a solid! Just picture to yourself, if you can, the appearance of our world at this late epoch in its history. Every part of it where fire had been frequently lighted would have been covered with a vast heap of stone-like cinders. The product or the combustion of charcoal in oxygen being a gas, we must collect a little of this gas in tubes or bottles, and test it methodically. The gas is colourless. soldier is good. Soldier is what is termed the subject of the LET us examine the proposition ὁ στρατιωτης εστι αγαθος, όλα proposition; that is, it is that of which something is asserted or declared. Good is the attribute, or that quality which is ascribed to the subject soldier. And is bears the name of verb; the essential function of which is, you see, to declare or affirm Does not support combustion (try by means of an ignited something. The verb is, in union with the attribute, forms taper or chip.) Does not burn, Is heavier than the atmosphere. (Demonstrate by two comparative experiments. Fill one bottle and allow it to stand mouth upward unstopped; fill another bottle and allow it to stand mouth downward unstopped; examine both for the presence of carbonic acid gas). Fig. 5. Fig. 5. it reddens blue litmus, and is therefore an acid. It whitens lime-water. Now any colourless invisible gas which reddens blue litmus paper, whitens lime-water, and does not smell like burning sulphur, must be carbonic acid. You will by this time begin to see the reason of our previous employment of certain negative tests. We tested hydrogen gas with lime water, with litmus and with turmeric; we in neither case developed any effect. But we proceeded on the assumption that the gases operated upon were unknown, and we were therefore bound to follow one systematic undeviating course of testing. the predicate, and makes a declaration respecting the subject. The sentence or proposition thus composed may be designated in this manner : εστι is ⚫ attribute. αγαθος. good. ὁ στρατιωτης the soldier Instead of a noun, the subject may be a pronoun, viz. ¿yw, I, hμeis, we, &c. As the personal pronoun is not used in Greek, except for emphasis, since the person intended is marked by the termination of the verb, the subject may be involved in and expressed by the verb itself, as Ave, I loose. The verb may also form the predicate of a proposition, and so contain the verb and the attribute; that is, the verb may of itself make the affirmation. Such is the office performed by λvw, I loose. Accordingly, in Greek as in Latin, a verb may contain in itself the subject, the verb, and the attribute; in other words, it may comprise both predicate and subject, as ypapw, I write. Here we have a verb in three forms; the first form is called the active voice, the second form is called the middle voice, the third form is called the passive voice. Those verbs are active which simply express action. Those verbs are middle of which the action comes back on the subject. Those verbs are passive in which the subject is acted upon. These varieties, it will be noticed, are varieties in both form and meaning. Thus Avw, the active, differs in form from Avouat the middle. It differs also in signification; for while Aww signifies I loose, Avoμa signifies I loose myself. This active voice may be transitive or intransitive in import; thus, we may say λvw, I loose, using the verb generally without any specific object; here the verb is intransitive; the intransitive form is seen better in Oaλλw, I blossom. We may also say Avw roν AVOρWπov, I loose the man, when Xvw has a definite object, and is Under the head of carbon, we shall have to take up carbonic acid systematically; at this time I merely treat of it collaterally. Examination of the Results of the Combustion of Sulphur in Oxygen. Here again we do not observe any solid result. If the combustion had been conducted in a perfectly dry vessel, or even in a vessel containing water, provided the results of combustion were examined speedily after the occurrence of that phenomenon, we should have demonstrated the existence of a peculiar gas. In the present instance the gas may be absent inasmuch as it is readily soluble in water. If present you will smell it, if absent the water will be found to contain it; at any rate some will be found absorbed by the water, to which there-transitive. fore we may first apply our tests. It is sour to the taste. Smells like burning brimstone. Reddens litmus paper, then bleaches the paper. It may or may not whiten lime water: dependent on the mutual quantities of the two. You will now do well to prepare another portion of this gas, and transfer it into a bottle over the pneumatic trough; although the gas be absorbable by water, nevertheless by avoiding unnecessary agitation a sufficient amount may be collected. You will find that it neither burns nor supports combustion, It is called sulphurous acid, and under the head of sulphur will come before us in further detail. Examination of the Results of the Combustion of Phosphorus in Oxygen Gas.-After agitating well the contents of the jar in question, with a little water, you will find that the liquid thus produced is sour, and reddens litmus paper; hence it is an acid. You will also find that the air contained in the bottle is atmospheric air, neither more nor less. Hence the sole result of the combustion of phosphorus is a white solid, exceedingly soluble in water. The solid in question is denominated phosphoric acid. Observe in relation to numbers two and three, as given above, that the English I loose myself, and I am loosed, are very nearly related in meaning. If I loose myself, clearly I am loosed. The chief difference between the two is, that in the former the action is restricted to one person, namely, the subject; while, in the latter, it extends to a second person,the person, that is, by whom the subject is wrought upon The difference, in consequence, is rather in the person than the act. Accordingly, you see that the form remains the same, being in both cases Avopai. In other words, Avoμai may have a reflex (or middle) import, as I loose myself, or a passive import, as I am loosed. Strictly speaking, there is but one form in the present tense. Grammarians differ as to the name which they give to that form, some calling it a middle, others a passive voice. Very few, if any verbs, are known to possess all the tenses of the three voices, as they might be formed analogically. What forms really exist will appear as we proceed. TENSES. Again, study the following forms, which, for the sake of brevity, I at once present arranged, and to which I append | so called because it merely indicates or declares the act; this the meanings: Tenses. { Historical ελυον ελυσα λελυκα. ελελύκειν. The exact manner of their formation will be explained by and by. At present observe that an action may be considered as now proceeding, hence the present tense; as proceeding in past time, hence the imperfect tense; as proceeding in time to come, hence the future tense; as actually done in past time, hence the aorist tense; as having proceeded in past time, hence the perfect tense; and as having proceeded previously to some other past act, hence the pluperfect tense. Accordingly the present tense properly signifies, as in λvw, I am loosening; and the passive, Avopai, I am being loosened. Mark, also, that the imperfeet denotes both an act going on in the past, and a continual and repeated act. The aorist, as the word signifies, denotes an action as simply past, without any exact limitation; and so is called the indefinite (such is the meaning of the term) tense, or the tense of historical narrative. The perfect denotes a past act which, in itself or in its conseThe quences, comes down to or near the present time. pluperfect denotes an act done and past, when another past Act was proceeding, was completed. some Third future passive or There are Future passive Double forms of the Tenses, as A third future, or perfect passive future, is also found, as Terubopar, I shall have been struck. verbs, or verbs having a vowel for their characteristic, have only the first form their tenses according to either the first or the second forms. Pure Only few verbs have both the first and the second forms; most verbs The second perfect is sometimes erroneously called a perfect middle. forms. ετυπην MOODS. - Mood is a grammatical term employed to point out the manner of an action. If I describe an act as simply taking place, I use 1. The Indicative, as Avw, I loose, is the mood of independence and reality. If I describe an act as dependent on some other act, as dependent on a conjunction or a verb, I employ 2. The Subjunctive, as Avg, he may loosen. This is the mood of dependence, or of conception; so called because it implies dependence on another act expressed or understood; that is, an act really performed or conceived of in the mind. The subjunctive of the historical tenses is, in Greek Grammar, called 3. The Optative, as Avoy, I might (or would) loose, If I express an act in the way of command, I use 4. The Imperative, as Ave, loose thou. These four moods are called finite, that is, definite or limited, because they all express the act under certain limita tions or modifications. But if I express an act indefinitely, or in its abstract form, disconnected, that is, with person or number, I then employ the mood termed 5. The Infinitive, as Avev, to loose. Another modification of the verb is found in The Verbal Adjective, AUTEOC, he must be loosed, which resembles the Latin participle passive in dus, as amandus, he must be loved; and accordingly has a passive force. THE PARTICIPLE. Participles are so called because they partake of the qualities of the verb and the adjective; as expressive of the quality of the verb they denote action, as expressive of the quality of the adjective they denote modification, e.g. Bouλevwv avno, a counselling man, that is, a Counsellor. In Greek, as in English, there are three persons; 1st, the speaker, I; 2nd, the person spoken to, thou; 3rd, the person spoken of, he. The persons in Greek are in general indicated by personal-endings, that is, changes in the termination of the verb; as, 1st, person Av-w; 2nd, Av-aç; 3rd, Av-ei. I loose, thou loosest, he looses. In the English termination e, est, es, you have an example of these person-endings. I have loosed. The stem is variable. Thus we have the stem or root of the verb; the stem of the verb may in most verbs be found by cutting off w, the personal-ending; thus, Xvw, Av. Besides the stem of the verb, there is the tense stem, thus, Avoa; the first aorist, by dropping the personal-ending a, gives λvo, the tense stem of the first aorist active; of this form, Avo, the e is the augment or prefix, the force of which is to denote past time. Of the form Avoa, the oa is the inflexion or suffix of the first aorist; and of the oa, the a is the ending of the first person singular. Full particulars will be given in our next lesson. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XVIII. BY CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D., Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the Italian and German EXERCISES.-ITALIAN-ENGLISH. Egli è ritornato, he has returned. Glascovia, Glasgow. Pranzo, dinner (dopo pranzo, In, in Col, with the (m.) COLLOQUIAL EXERCISES. Sul, on or upon the (m.) La tá-vo-la, the table Di qué-sto giar-dí-no, of this garden Di mi-o pá-dre, of my father Da mi-o pá-dre, from my father A, to A qué-sto giar-dí-no, to this A mi-o pá-dre, to my father I'-o pên-so, I think, direct my E-gli pên-sa, he thinks, directs COLLOQUIAL EXERCISES.-ITALIAN-ENGLISH. E-gli è ri-tor-ná-to dal bô-sco. Vên-go da Lôn-dra, da ch-sa mi-a. E' gia par-tí-to da Ná-po-li. I'-o só-no tra-dí- Dó-ve a-vé-te voi per-dú-to il vô-stro lí-bro? In qué-sto to da voi, da tút-ti. Di-scen-de da ú na schiét-ta nô-bi-le. giar-di-no. A-vé-te voi ve-dú-to vô-stra zí-a in ú-na car-rôzLon-tá-no dai miê-ige-ni-tô-ri. Lún-gi da Fi-rên-ze. Dachi za? Dóv è vô-stra má-dre? E1-la è nel sú-o giar-đi-no con di-pen-dé-te voi? Non si di-stin-gue 1 ú-no dall’ al-tro. Ri- mí-o pa-dre. Col li-bro e cól-la pén-na. La ta-bac-chiê-ra è tor-na-re dál-la Ger-má-nia, dall' I-tá-lia, dál-la Rús-sia, da súl-la tá-vo-la, e l' a-nêl-lo è sul lêt-to. Il mi-o pic-co-lo fraTo-rí-no. Non è an-có-ra u-sci-to dál-la cit-tà. Por-tá-i têl-lo è nél-la stán-za e mí-a so-rêl-la è nel cor-í-le. Col quéste cár te dal giú-di-ce al no-tá-jo. Scén-de, cá-de dal mí-o cap-pel-lo e cól-la mí-a om-brêl-la. Dóv’ è tú-o pa-dre? tét-to. L'a-cqua scór-re giù món-te. Da per tút-to. Da E-gli è nel nô-stro giar-dí-no. Ab-biá-mo tro-va-to un lí-bro un cán-to, da un lá-to. Non vo-lé-va-no u-sci-re di quà.. Ein qué-sta chié-sa. Il mi-o píc-co-lo fra-têl-lo è nél-la scuôri-tor-ná-ta pôc' an-zi di Prús-sia. E'-gli è di Gla-scô-via. la. Dov'è la mí-a om-brêl-la? E's-sa è nél-la car-rôz-za. Il E u-sci-to di cá-sa, di tea-tro, di cór-te, di pa-láz-zo, di cit- tem-pe-rí-no di mi-o fra-têl-lo è buô-no. La pén-na di mí-a tà, di chié-sa. So-no stá-to da mí-a so-rel-la. Og-gi_pran-so-rel-la è án-che buô-na. A-vé-te voi ve-dú-to 1’ om-brêl-la ze-rò dal mer-can-te. Dó-po prán-zo an-drò da lui. E' ve- di mi-o pá-dre? La scuô-la di mí-o zí-o è gran-dís-si-ma. Hô nú-to sta-mat-ti-na da me. E-gli a-bi-ta, al-lôg-gia, sta da | ve-dú-to la ta-bac-chiê-ra di vô-stro pa-dre. A-vé-te voi persú-o pá-dre (or in cá-sa di sú-o pá-dre; or prês-so sú-o pá- dú-to il tem-pe-rí-no di mi-a so-rêl-la? Qué-sto fan-ciúl-lo è dre*). il fi-glio di mi-a zi-a. Hai tu ve-dú-to il pá-dre di qué-sto VOCABULARY. fan-ciúl-lo? Qué-sto fan-ciúl-lo ha per-dú-to la ta-bac-chiên Non è ancora uscito, he has not ra di sú-o pá-dre. Hô ri-ce-vú-to un man-têl-lo da nô-stro fra-têl-lo. Ab-biá-mo ri-ce-vú-to un ca-vál-lo da vô-stro zí-0. yet gone. Portai, I carried. Mí-o pá-dre ha ri-ce-vu-to ú-na lêt-te-ra da nô-stra zí-a Hai tu ri-ce-vú-to qué-sto re-gá-lo da tú-a so-rêl-la? Mi-a má-dre ha com-prá-to qué-sta cúf-fia da vô-stra so-rêl-la. Il tem-perí-no che ab-bia-mo ri-ce-vú-to da nô-stro zí-o è buô-no e bello. A'-mo mi-a so-rêl-la. Qué-sta má-dre á-ma sú-o fi-glio. Pên-so a mí-o fra-têl-lo. Mi-a zi-a pên-sa a sú-o fi-glio ed a sú-a fi-glia. Qué-sto fan-ciúl-lo ha scrít-to ú-na let-te-ra a sú-a má-dre. Mí-o zí-o ha ven-dú-to il sú-o bêl ca-vál-lo a mí-o pá-dre. Hô dá-to il mí-o tem-pe-rí-no a mi-a so-rêl-la. A-vé-te voi pre-stá-to la vô-stra om-brêl-la a mí-o fra-têl-lo? Per tutto, da per tutto, every-Il fi-glio di nô-stra zí-a è gran-dís-si-mo. Ab-bia-mo scrít-to where, in all places, all over. Canto, lato, side. ú-na grán-de lêt-te-ra a nô-stro pá-dre. Mi-a zí-a ha ri-cevú-to qué-sta cúf-fia da sú-a fi-glia. A-vé-te voi ven-dú-to la vô-stra ta-bac-chiê-ra a mío pa-dre? Hô pre-sta-to a tú-o fra-têl-lo il tem-pe-rí-no che í-o hô ri-ce-vú-to da mí-o zí-o. Ab-biá-mo dá-to un man-têl-lo a qué-sto fan-ciúl-lo. Hai tu pre-stá-to il tú-o lí-bro a qué-sto buôn fan-ciúl-lo? A-vé-te voi tro-vá-to qué-sta pén-na nél-la scuô-la? Pên-so a qué-sto fi-glio ed a qué-sta fi-glia. Bosco, forest, wood. E' gia partito, he has already Carta, f., paper. Napoli, Naples. departed. Giudice, judge. Notajo, notary. Seende, he descends. Cade, he falls. Tetto, roof, Io sono tradito, I am betrayed. Discende, he is descended. Schiatta, race, family. Nobile, noble. Lontano, distant, far, Miei, my (pl. m.). Genitore, father, i genitori, pl., Lungi, distant, far. Dipendete voi, do you depend. Uno, one. Ritornare, to return. To live or reside with one, may also be translated by a-bi-tá-1e (al-log-giá-re, stá-re), in cá-sa di qual-cu-no (to live or reside in the house of one), or prês-so qual-cú-no (near or about one). ENGLISH-ITALIAN. He comes from the riding-school and not from the garden. He has received the goods from the merchants of Hamburgh. Has Mr. Baring returned from the fair? The letters which I have received from France speak much of a great theft. Does the brother-in-law import the goods from England or from Holland? From Hamburgh to Paris is a hundred and ninety | Name, nó-me, m. He comes, é-gli viê-ne VOCABULARY. Riding - school, ca-val-le-rizza (ts), f. He has received, é-gli ha ri-ce- Goods, mer-can-zí-a (ts), f. Has returned, è ri-tor-ná-to. Fair, fie-ra, f. Letter, lêt-te-ra, f. Do you come, viên El-la Walking, pas-ség-gio, m. Which I have received, che ho Here is, éc-co ri-ce-vu-te France, la Frán-cia Speak much of, pár-la-no mólto di A great theft, un gran la-tro- Does import, fa ve-ni-re Holland, l'O-lán-da Is a hundred and ninety miles, French, fran-cé-se Ball, bál-lo, m. Is far shorter than (the transi- Hard work, la-bo-rio-si-tà, f. Must guide, de-vo-no gui-dd-re His heir, il sú-o (pl. suô-i) e-rê- | If he wants to deserve, se vuôl de, m. me-ri-tá-re • Mind this important difference: pé-sca, fishing, fishing-place, fishery; and peê-sca, peach; lividity, black and blue spot (from a blow); blow, thump, cuff. Is expected, viê-ne a spet-tá-to Every day, ó-gni giór-no Him, lui (at this house, i. e. I see, hear, and learn many Count, cón-te Has been, è stá-to James, Ja-co-po To come (i. e. that he may This evening, sta-sé-ra (for Servant, ser-vi-tó-re, m. I shall send him, lo man-de-rò LESSONS IN READING AND ELOCUTION.-No. II. I. THE PERIOD. 1. The Period is a round dot or mark which is always put at the end of a sentence. 2. In reading, when you come to a period, you must stop as ir you had nothing more to read. 3. You must stop only as long as you can count one, two, three, four. 4. You must pronounce the word which is immediately before a period, with the falling inflection of the voice. 5. The falling inflection (or bending) of the voice is commonly marked by the grave accent, thus '. 6. The note or mark of Interrogation is a round dot with a hook above it, which is always put at the end of a question. 7. In reading, when you come to a note of interrogation, you must stop as if you waited for an answer. 8. You must stop only as long as you do at the period. 9. You must in most cases pronounce the word which is placed immediately before a note of interrogation, with the rising inflection of the voice. 10. The rising inflection of the voice is commonly marked by the acute accent thus, '. Examples. Has Charles bought a new hát? Have you lost your gloves? Hast thou an arm like God? Canst thou thunder with a voice like hím? If his son ask bread, will he give him a stone? If he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent? 11. In general, read declaratory sentences or statements with the falling inflection, and interrogative sentences or questions with the rising inflection of the voice. Examples. Interrogative. Hast thou appealed unto César? |