and in Latin unus. But the indeterminate one had no existence in Anglo-Saxon at all; and it was foreign to the soil of England until the battle of Hastings. Hence, common as it is, it is of French origin. The older forms in French were om and homme, which are neither more nor less than the Latin_homo=man. So that one says=man says or men say. Now this is what our Anglo-Saxon ancestors actually said. Before on was introduced from France we said man or men. At the present time the German for one says (on dit) is man sagt.

In such phrases as it rains, it snows, it freezes, it would be hard to say, in express terms, what it stands for. Suppose we are asked what rains? what snows? what freezes? -the answer is difficult. We might say the rain, the weather, the sky, or what not? Yet, none of these answers are satisfactory. To say the rain rains, the sky rains, &c., sounds strange. Yet we all know the meaning of the expression-obscure as it may be in its details. We all know that the word it is essential to the sentence; and that if we omitted it and simply said rains, the grammar would be faulty. We also know that it is the Subject of the proposition-a point of knowledge which is of great importance.

§ 171. The Article an or a.-The word an (or a) can only occur in combination with other words; as a man, an island, a woman. It is the same for all genders; as a man,

a woman, a sword.

It is also the same for all cases, as a man's, a woman's, a sword's, of a man, to a man, strike a man, &c.

It occurs only in the singular number. It is, in origin, the numeral one; in Scotch, ane; this use of the numeral one for an article being common in many languages.

The article an (or a) is used where we speak of some single object without specifying or defining it. For this reason the word an (or a) is called the Indefinite Article.

The words an and a are identical. In the latter the

sound of the -n is omitted. Which of the two forms is to be used depends upon the nature of the following substantive.

1. When the Substantive begins with the sound of a vowel, we use an; as an ant, an egg, an island, an ostrich, an hour, an heir. In these two last words the h is not sounded (or mute), so that the words heir and hour really begin with the sounds of vowels.

2. When the Substantive begins with the sound of a consonant, a semivowel, or h, we use a; as a pan, a bat, a fane, a vane, a tile, a den, a thought, a coat, a kitten, a gun, a sun, a zany, a chest, a jest, a house, a hill, a hint, a hindrance, &c.

Observe. The following words (and others like them), although their first letter is a vowel, are preceded by the form a; a ewer, a unit, a one (as in many a one). We do not say an ewer, an unit, an one, although the words are frequently written so.

Of this we see the reason when we remember the sounds of the words in question. Ewer, unit, one (and other words like them), are sounded yoo-er, yoo-nit, won, in which case they begin, not with a vowel, but a semi-vowel.

§ 172. The Definite Article the.—The word the is called the Definite Article, because it specifies or defines the Substantive with which it is conjoined; as the man, the woman, the child; by which expression some particular man, woman, or child is signified.

The Definite Article is the same for all genders; as the man, the woman, the child.

It is also the same for all cases; as the man's, the children's, the men's, of the man, to the man.

It is also the same for all numbers; as the man, the men; the woman, the women; the child, the children.

When two or more Substantives come together, meaning the same thing, the article is joined to the first of them only. We say the secretary and treasurer, or a secre

tary and treasurer, when the two offices are held by one person.

When two or more Substantives come together, meaning different things, the article is repeated, and conjoined with each of the two. We say the secretary and the treasurer, or a secretary and a treasurer, when the two offices are held by separate persons. This rule is not rigidly adhered

to.

§ 173. Instead of the true nominative ye, we use (with few exceptions) the objective case you; as you speak, you two are speaking. In this case we substitute one case for another.

Instead of the true Pronoun of the second person singular, thou, we use (with few exceptions) the Pronoun of the second person plural, ye; and that in the objective rather than the nominative case, you speak thou speakest.

=

There are very few languages where the Pronoun of the second person singular is used, except in solemn discourse. Sometimes that of the second person plural, sometimes that of the third person plural, serves as its substitute.

§ 174. Expressions like take them things away, though not to be imitated, are capable of being explained, through the fact of the original power of they and them being demonstrative.

§ 175. The words my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, are Cases, in the same way that the word father's is a Case. The words mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, theirs, are Adjectives, in the same way that good is an Adjective.

If the words his, her, and its were not Cases, such expressions as his mother, her father, would violate the Concord of Gender; since his is masculine, whilst mother is feminine; her feminine, whilst father is masculine.

§ 176. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's is different in sense from this is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. The latter means this is how Sir Isaac Newton was discovered: the former means of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries this is

one. The full expression would be, (1) this is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's (discoveries); (2) of the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton's (discoveries) this (discovery) is one (discovery).

In all such sentences there are two Substantives: one with which the article agrees, and which is expressed; and one by which the Possessive case s is governed, and which is omitted, as being understood.

§ 177. The Pronominal Possessive cases, my, thy, &c., are not in all respects like the Possessive cases of the Substantives (father's, mother's, &c.).

We cannot say an enemy of my, a notion of thy, &c. Yet— We can say these are good books, but we cannot say these are mine books. Hence

Rule 1.-The Adjectival Pronouns like mine, thine, ours, &c., are only used when the substantive is understood; as this book is mine, i. e. my book.

Rule 2.-The Possessive Cases are only used when the substantive is expressed; as this is my book (not this is mine book, nor yet this book is my).

§ 178. Construction of the word self in composition with pronouns.-1. In the word my-self, thy-self, our-selves, yourselves, the word self (or selves) governs the words my, thy, our, your, just as in the expression John's hat the word hat governs the word John's; so that my, thy, are possessive

cases.

2. This is not the case with the words him-self and themselves. Here the words self and selves are in apposition with the words him and them respectively.

3. The word her-self is ambiguous; since it is doubtful whether her be a possessive or an objective case.

4. The word it-self is also ambiguous; since it is doubtful whether it originated in it-self or its-self.

This inconsistency in the use of the word self in composition with pronouns is as old as the time of the AngloSaxons.

§ 179. Whenever any other word comes between the personal pronoun and the word self, the personal pronoun is always in the genitive case: my own self, thy own self, our own selves, your own selves, his (not him) own self, her own self, its (not it) own self, their (not them) own selves.

§ 180. In words like himself and themselves, the apposition is strictly true and correct only when the words are in the objective case-he flatters himself he has hurt himself-they flatter themselves. When the word is in the nominative case, the apposition is incorrect. He himself is coming-they themselves are coming, are anomalous, although current expressions, since they and selves, he and self, are nominative forms, whilst him and them are objective. This is to be explained by overlooking the compound character of the words himself and themselves, and considering the whole formation as a single word in the nominative case.

Probably the inaccuracy in question is too inveterate to be remedied; otherwise we might say that whenever the word self is in the nominative case, the personal pronoun should be in the possessive-myself is weak; thyself is weak; ourselves are strong; yourselves are strong; his (not him) self is strong; herself is fair; its self is good; theirselves are bad.

As it is, the words him and them are neither in a state of government nor a state of apposition.

SUBSTANTIVES.

§ 181. Apposition.- In expressions like George, King of England, we must remark three things:

1. That the words King and George are in the same case, being both nominatives.

2. That they express the same thing. The word George applied to that particular monarch, means the same thing as the King of England, and the words King of England,