lion-æ for lioness-es, which we do not. From this we learn that in respect to the expression of a difference of sex, there is something to be found in the Latin language which is wholly or partially wanting in the English. This we may call the grammatical expression of the difference of sex; or Gender.

$74. Masculine, Feminine, Neuter.-In words like boy and girl the first word is the name of a male object, the second of a female one. In grammar, however, instead of saying that the word boy is a male word, and the word girl a female word, we use the terms masculine and feminine; and we say that boy is a word of the Masculine Gender, and girl a word of the Feminine Gender. But besides such objects as boys and girls, which are either male or female, there are in the world a vast number of objects, such as swords, bows, shoes, iron, &c., that are neither male nor female. These objects have names, and these names are very often neither masculine nor feminine, though they are sometimes supposed to be endowed with sex, and made either males or females. Words of this sort, that are neither masculine nor feminine, are said to be of the neuter gender. We may say then that there are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. The masculine denotes males; the feminine, females; and the neuter things, or objects that are neither male nor female. We can now apply this to the words mentioned above. In the English substantives and adjectives there is no true distinction of Gender. Words like man, woman, he-goat, she-goat, actor, actress, &c., being approximations only. In Anglo-Saxon, however, this distinction existed, and even in the language as it is spoken at the present time, exists among the Pronouns. Thus

The two words, him and her, are of the same number, in the same case, and from the same nominative. Yet they are different words, and they differ in meaning; the first being applied to males, the second to females only

Have you seen your
Have you seen your

brother?--Yes, I have seen him.
sister ?—Yes, I have seen her.

Now this difference of form denotes a true difference of gender, and it is one of the peculiarities of pronouns to be changed, not only in the way of Case and Number, but in the way of Gender also.

sons,

§ 75. Number.-In the following phrases we speak of a single object; that is, of one object and of no more than one: a father, my father, this father, one father; a son, my son, this son, one son; a horse, this horse, that horse, my horse, one horse. In this case the words father, son, and horse appear in a simple form, without the addition of any letter or syllable whatsoever. This is not the case with the words in the list forthcoming; these father-s, these son-s, these hors-es, &c. Here we speak of more objects than one; that is, of two (or more) fathers, of two (or more) and of two (or more) horses. In this case the letter s is added to the words father, son, and horse respectively. Now in the Latin language the word singularis means single; so that the forms without s, such as father, son, and horse, denoting respectively one father, one son, one horse, and no more, are called Singular forms, and are said to be in the Singular Number. On the other hand, in the Latin language the words plus and pluralis mean more or many; so that the forms with s, like father-s, son-s, and hors-es, denoting respectively two (or more) fathers, two (or more) sons, two (or more) horses, are called Plural forms, or are said to be in the Plural Number. In the English language we may therefore say that there are two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The Singular speaks of one (a father), and the Plural speaks of more than one (fathers, books).

§ 76. Case. We may arrive at a knowledge of the nature of Cases by examining the structure of the following propositions.

He is striking him ;-these words form a proposition, of

which he is the subject, is the copula, and striking him the predicate. Now he and him, although the same parts of speech, of the same Gender, and of the same Number, appear in different forms. In one there is the presence, in the other the absence, of the letter m (he, hi-m). The reason of this is because the two words are in different Cases. The same takes place with they are striking them. We cannot say him is striking he, nor yet them is striking they. We cannot even say, him is striking, them are striking. If we examine farther, we shall find that he and they can, by themselves, form terms; since we can say, he is striking; and since we can also say this is he, and these are they. On the other hand, him and them can only form parts of terms: as he is striking them, they are striking him. Such is the difference in meaning between the words he and him.

When words differ from each other in meaning in the way that he and him, they and them differ, it is the habit more or less, of languages to express this difference of meaning by a difference of form. This is done with the words just quoted; where he and they take one form, and him and them another. Differences of this sort, expressed by difference of form, are said to constitute Cases. The word he is in one Case (the Nominative), the word him in another (the Accusative or Objective). So it is also with they and them.

A noun is said to be in the Nominative Case when it can by itself constitute a term. The words he and father are Nominative Cases; since we can say, he is speaking, father is coming, this is he, this is father.

They fought with a sword.-Here there is the substantive sword accompanied by the word with. In many languages, however, the word with would be omitted, and the word sword change its form. The Anglo-Saxon for they fought with the sword, was feohton sweord-e, where no such word as with appeared in the sentence, but where the

additional syllable -e served instead. This constituted in Anglo-Saxon a particular Case.

This is a picture of John.-Here there is the substantive John accompanied by the word of. In many languages, however, the word of (or its equivalent) would be omitted, and the word John would change its form. This would constitute a fresh Case. The meaning of the sentence this is a picture of John is, this is a picture of which John is the subject (or original).

This is John's picture. Here the word John's is unaccompanied by any word of the nature of to, with, or of. Instead of an accompaniment, it has undergone a change in form. The word John has been changed into John's. Here a true Case is constituted.

Now the meaning of the sentence this is John's picture, is, this is a picture in the possession of John. The idea of possession is expressed by the addition of the sound of the letter -s (John, John's). Hence John's is an example of what is called the Possessive Case.

§ 77. The cases in the present English are three : 1. Nominative: father, he.

2. Objective: him.

3. Possessive: his, father's.

The Objective Case in English is, to a great extent, equivalent to the Accusative of other languages; and it is also the Case that follows prepositions: as he struck him; he gave the book to him; he took the book from him.

PRONOUNS.

§ 78. A variable name capable of forming, by itself, either the subject or the predicate of a proposition is called a Pronoun. The words I, thou, he, she, it, they, this, that, &c., are Pronouns. They are all names; and all variable; and they can each and all form either one or the other of the terms of a proposition-I am he, thou art he, he is the man, we are the people, ye are they, they are the strangers,

I am the man, the man is he, this is the man, these are the women, the books are these, &c.

§ 79. The Pronouns come thus early under notice on account of the fulness of their inflection. They have two numbers; three genders; and (at least) as many cases. Neither Substantives nor Adjectives have thus much in the way of declension. At the same time all Pronouns are not inflected alike; words like some, same, each, &c.— words which, as we proceed, will be noticed more fully— are as destitute of the signs of Gender, Number, and Case, as the Adjectives themselves.

§ 80. The first division of the Pronoun contains:

1. The Demonstrative.

2. The Interrogative.
3. The Relative.

They are all declined on the same principle, i. e. they have all a neuter in t, a Possessive in s, an Objective in m, or n, according to the gender-it, what, is, whose, him, whom, her, where. 1-t, tha-t, and wha-t are true neuter signs; t being the original sign of the neuter gender. In the present Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic, and in the old Norse and Moso-Gothic, all neuter adjectives end in -t.

§ 81. Demonstratives. - The Demonstrative Pronouns derive their name from the Latin word demonstro=I show, or point out.

Of Demonstrative Pronouns there are three varieties, viz.:

1 True Demonstratives-This, that, yon.

2. Demonstratives which partake of a nature of the Personal Pronouns-he, she.

3. The Definite Article the.

True Demonstratives.-This applies to comparatively near; that to comparatively distant; yon to remote objects. Yon is undeclined. This and that are declined in respect to number only.