naturally plural, so that words like five and six have no need of taking any particular form to distinguish them from singulars. These facts do away with the necessity of any forms expressive of number. The expression of case and gender is not so naturally superfluous: and, hence, in many languages the earlier numerals are declined. In the present English all the cardinals are undeclined. One antiquated word, however, preserves a trace of an earlier Anglo-Saxon declension. The word twain was originally the accusative masculine of twá (twá-n, A. S. twegen). The original accusative form in A. S. for adjectives and pronouns in the masculine gender and singular number ended in -n, or -ne, and the original accusative form of he and who were not him and whom (hi-m, hvæ-m), but hine and hwane (hi-ne hwa-ne). The forms in m that are at present current as objective cases (him and whom) were originally datives. Him in A. S. meant to him, and hwam in A. S. meant to whom. The word twain, then, is of interest, inasmuch as it is the only word wherein the original A. S. accusative ending is preserved.

§ 87. Ordinal Numbers.-The cardinal number one has no corresponding ordinal form derived from it. The word first is a superlative form derived from the root fore. There is no such word as on-th.

The cardinal number two has no corresponding ordinal form derived from it. The word second is derived from the Latin secundus.

The remainder forms its ordinals by the addition of the sound th1, subject to slight variations. In third, th becomes d. In fifth, the vowel is shortened. In third, there is also a transposition of the letter r.

§ 88. The difference between the termination -teen and -ty, as they appear in the words thir-teen and thir-ty, requires notice. In both cases they are connected with the word ten. Indeed, they may be said to mean ten. They differ,

1 As in thin.

however, in their way of doing so. Teen means simply ten; so that thirteen is three and ten. Ty, however, was originally tig, and meant a collection of ten, just as sixpence means a single sixpenny piece rather than six separate pennies. Hence, thirty means three collections of ten.

§ 89. Self is more or less of a Substantive. It has a plural number, which it forms in -8, being declined like leaf.

Self is generally found in composition, as myself, ourselves, &c., when it is called the Reflective Pronoun. The true Reflective, however, is wanting in English.

Other, like self, is more or less of a Substantive. It has a plural, which it forms in s-other-s.

One, like other and self, is more or less of a Substantive. It has a plural, which it forms in s-e. g. my wife and little ones are well.

The identity of form between the words one, the indefinite pronoun, and one, the numeral, is entirely accidental. The numeral has no plural number; besides which, the meaning and the origin of the two words are different. The word under notice is derived from the French, and is the on in such expressions as on dit. This, in its turn, is from the Latin homo man. The German for on dit, at the present time, is man sagt or man says, and until the Norman Conquest the same mode of expression prevailed in England. One is often called the Indeterminate Pronoun.

§ 90. The Articles are four-an, the, no, and every. An is called the Indefinite, the the Definite Article. When an precedes a consonant the -n is ejected. We say an egg, a lion.

It is not usual to look upon the word no as an article, though some grammarians have done so. It is still more uncommon to make an article of every. reason, however, for doing it. All the four words under notice agree in having no separate and independent

There is good

existence. Wherever they occur they occur in union with a noun or pronoun. Thus we say a man, the man, and no man. We can say every one is ready, but we can not say every is ready.

Articulus is the Latin for a joint; and articles take their name from the circumstance of their being united or joined to some other words. In many languages they actually combine. Thus (in Danish) bord is a table, whilst bordet is the table (table the).

An is the numeral one, in Anglo-Saxon án, in Scotch ane. It is, of course, the original form, from which a is the derivative. Hence, instead of saying that the indefinite articles are 'a and an,' we should say that the indefinite article is 6 an or a.'

§ 91. SUBSTANTIVES.

For the difference between variable and invariable names see § 65.

An invariable name, capable by itself, of forming either the subject or predicate of a proposition is called a substantive, or noun substantive, a variable name, with the same powers, being called a pronoun.

§ 92. Substantives are declined. Their Declension gives (1) Numbers, (2) Cases.

The Numbers are two-(1) Singular, (2) Plural.

The Plural is formed from the Singular; and not the Singular from the Plural.

If the last sound of the singular be that of s, z, the sh in shine, or the z in azure, the addition is that of the sound of the syllable -ez (spelt -es); as loss-ez, kiss-ez, blaz-ez, haz-ez, blush-ez, lash-ez, spelt loss-es, kiss-es, blaz-es, haz-es, blush-es, lash-es.

Observe. (1) Words ending in ch and ge, really end in sh and zh, and form their plurals accordingly: as church (churtsh), church-ez; crutch (crutsh), crutch-ez; witch (witsh), witch-ez; judge (judzh), judg-ez; barge (bardzh) barg-ez; spelt church-es, crutch-es, witch-es, judg-es, barg-es.

Observe. (2) Words ending in a really end in -s, and form their plurals accordingly; as box (bocks), box-es, (bocks-ez); fox (focks), fox-ez (focks-ez); spelt boxes, foxes, &c.

If the last sound of the singular be that of a sharp mute (not s or sh), the sound added to it in order to form the plural is that of the letter s in seal: as top, top-s; muff, muff-s; cat, cat-s; moth, moth-s; stack, stack-s.

If the last sound of the singular be that of a flat mute (not z or zh), a liquid, or a vowel, the sound added to it in order to form the plural is that of the z in zeal: as slab, slab-z; slave, slav-z; lad, lad-z; dog, dog-z; hill, hill-z; drum, drum-z; hen, hen-z; bar, bar-z; day, day-z; flea, flea-z; bow, bow-z; spelt slabs, slaves, lads, dogs, hills, drums, hens, bars, days, fleas, bows.

§ 93. Having gone through the details given above, we are now enabled to give the rule for the formation of the plural in more general language. We can now say that the greater part of the English plurals is formed by the addition of the sound of s, modified according to the termination of the singular.

§ 94. Plural of certain words in f.-The following words end in the sharp mute f-loaf, half, wife, life, calf, leaf. Now, according to § 93, their plurals should be formed by the addition of the sound of s in seal, and so be loafs, halfs, wifes, lifes, calfs, leafs (pronounced loafce, halfce, wifce, lifce, calfce, leafce). This, however, is not the case. Their plurals are formed by the addition of the sound of z in zeal, and are loaves, halves, wives, lives, calves, leaves (pronounced loarz, halvz, wivz, livz, calvz, leavz); the sound of the f being changed into that of v. Respecting these words we must observe:

1. That the vowel before f is long. Words like muff, where the vowel is short, form their plurals by means of the sound of the s in seal; as muff, muff-s (pronounced muffce).

2. That they are all of Anglo-Saxon origin. In the words mischief, chief, handkerchief, grief, relief, the plural is formed as in muff; that is, by the addition of the sound of s; mischiefs, chiefs, &c.

Putting these two facts together, we can use more general language, and say that

When a word ends in the sound of f, preceded by a long vowel, and is of Anglo-Saxon origin, the plural is formed by the addition of the sound of the z in zeal.

To this rule there are two exceptions.

1. Dwarf; a word of Anglo-Saxon origin, but which forms its plural by means of the sound of 8-dwarfs (pronounced dwarfce).

2. Beef; a word not of Anglo-Saxon origin, but which forms its plural by means of the sound of z-beeves (pronounced beevz).

If we ask the reason of this peculiarity in the formation of the plurals of these words in -f, we shall find that it lies with the singular rather than the plural forms. In Anglo-Saxon, f at the end of a word was sounded as v; and it is highly probable that the original singulars were sounded loav, halv, wive, calv, leav.

§ 95. Plural forms in -ce.-1. The word penny should form its plural by means of the sound of the z in zeal. It does so, and, consequently, there is the plural form pennies (penniz): but, besides this, there is the form pence.

Now there are two plurals to the word penny, because there are two meanings. Six pennies means six separate penny-pieces. Six pence, or sixpence, means a single coin equivalent to six penny-pieces. This last sense is Collective rather than Plural.

The plural pence has a further peculiarity. According to § 93, it ought to end in the sound of z in zeal, which it does not it ends in the sound of s in seal. This serves to distinguish it from the plural of pen, which is penz (spelt pens).