and proud of each other; and Tacitus wrote an account of the doings of Agricola in Britain and elsewhere. From this account we learn that in his days the inhabitants of Britain were of three kinds: the Caledonians in Scotland, with red hair and large limbs, British of German descent: the Silures, with dark complexion Races. and curly hair, probably a colony from Spain: the rest of the people Tacitus thought were of the same race as the Gauls, as they had the same religion, the same language, and the same character of boldness to stir up danger and want of determination to face it when present.1 He states that some of the tribes fought on foot and others in chariots; and that, instead of being under the rule of kings as formerly, they were split up into parties among their chiefs, who would not join together against the common enemy. The climate was pleasant and the soil fertile.

It was in the summer of 78 that Agricola landed in Britain. At that time the Roman soldiers, thinking there would be no more expeditions that year, were anticipating a winter of enjoyment and ease; while the natives were making preparations to take advantage of their inactivity, and of the inclemency and darkness of the season. Not long before his arrival, the Ordovices, who inhabited North Wales, had sur- The Ordovices, prised a troop of cavalry which was stationed upon 78. the border of their territories, and had put almost every man of it to the sword. Agricola determined to commence active operations against the foe without undue delay. Notwithstanding the fact that the winter season was fast approaching, and that the soldiers were scattered throughout the Roman portion of the country,

1 The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 12.

The latter declined thereupon Agricola He led the advanced

the General assembled together certain veterans1 from the legions and a small body of auxiliaries; and, placing himself at their head, he boldly advanced into the territories of the victorious Celts. to meet the Romans in the plain; divided his forces into two bodies. party in person, in order to excite the confidence and to arouse the enthusiasm of his followers. The engagement that ensued was a most sanguinary one, as the Ordovices, scorning to yield, were almost extirpated by the well-armed and well-disciplined invaders. Agricola was resolved to follow up this success by an invasion of Anglesey. Its people expected to see the Romans cross the Menai Strait by means of a Anglesey, fleet; they were therefore astonished and affrighted

Submission of

78.

The

of abuses.

when they saw the auxiliaries plunge into the sea' upon horseback, and manage their horses and arms whilst swimming across the channel. The islanders at once sued for peace, and surrendered their land to Agricola.

In order to remove the causes of war, Agricola now removal began to remove abuses which existed in his own household and throughout the Roman provinces of Britain. Neither slaves nor freedmen were allowed to transact public business. He promoted the best men, and would not suffer himself to be influenced by private favour or the recommendation of his captains. He insisted upon knowing everything that went on,

These were a distinct body of soldiers termed Vexilla, who served under a flag of their own (Vexillum). They were free from the military oath and regular service, but they were called upon to assist the regular army in case of need. Their customary duty was to guard the frontiers, or to occupy forts in recently conquered districts.

2 The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 18; they were probably Batavians; Tacitus mentions them in his History, book iv., chap. 12.

but some things he allowed to pass by unnoticed. He was able to pardon small faults, and to be severe with those who committed grave ones; yet he would not always punish, as repentance satisfied him. With true greatness of mind he tried to excite the emulation of all, and to raise their characters and dispositions, by rewarding the good and the just, rather than by punishing offenders.

Before the time of Agricola the taxes in Britain were collected by a Procurator, who ground down the tribes, and compelled them to pay private exactions as well as public taxes. The people were obliged to buy their own corn out of their own granaries from the Romans, and afterwards to sell it to their conquerors at a fixed price; and they were also obliged to carry corn and to drive cattle to distant places, instead of to the nearest quarters of the Romans. Agricola did away with these cruel and vexatious iniquities.

agement

He encouraged learning, and was much pleased Encourwith the natural genius of the Celts. Before his arri- of the val the Celts did not wear much clothing, nor did Celts. they cultivate much land. They hunted and fished, and enjoyed themselves greatly. They loved their native tongue and their own mode of living in huts; but, believing in the justice and humanity of Agricola, they did what he desired them to do. Some of them forgot their own habits, and tried to dress, to speak, and to live like the Romans. They were encouraged to build temples, baths, and houses; and after awhile, from a desire to be polite, they learnt the vices1 of their conquerors, and soon became unfit for warfare, and were obliged to depend upon the Romans for protection.

'The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 21.

Ireland.

The Caledonians.

Agricola built a chain of forts1 between the Firths of Forth and Clyde, and a dyke from the river Tyne to the Solway Firth. He thought to conquer Ireland, which he viewed from the coasts of Galloway: and, as Cæsar was helped by the customary traitor, so a petty Irish king fled to Agricola to urge him to invade his native land.

Agricola kept the Irish prince in his company for some time under the plea of friendship; but he only wished to make use of him, should he invade his country. He was of the opinion that one legion of soldiers and a few auxiliaries would be sufficient to conquer and to hold Ireland; and he was the more inclined to invade it, as its annexation to the Roman Empire would overawe the Britons, as they would then be surrounded by the arms of the Romans, and liberty would be banished from their sight.2

He

Agricola's attention was drawn from Ireland by the Caledonians, whom he attacked by land and sea. had a most difficult task to perform, as the Caledonians were a brave and determined people. They were alarmed at the sight of the Roman vessels, lest, being vanquished upon land, their escape by sea would be cut off. They did not, however, give way to despair. In the year 83, Agricola advanced beyond the Firth of Forth. The Caledonians did not wait to be attacked, but, advancing against the outposts of the Romans, they endeavoured to capture them. Their boldness intimidated some of the invaders, who, upon the pretext of prudence, desired to retreat to the south of the 1 The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 23. 2 Ibid, chap. 24. These were situated in the vicinity of the Firth of Tay. The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 22.

attack

Roman

Firth of Forth, lest they should be overwhelmed by the foe. Their fears did not affect the Roman general, who arranged his forces into three divisions, so as not to be surrounded, as he had heard that the enemy were about to attack him in several bodies. The Caledonians became acquainted with Agricola's arrangements. They changed their plans at once, and uniting their forces, they swept down in the dead of Night night upon the ninth legion, which was the weakest upon the Roman division. For a time success attended this Camp, 83. bold and well concentrated attack. The Romans were asleep when the Caledonians, having slaughtered their sentinels and burst through their intrenchments, appeared within their camp. But the unequal combat was not of long duration. Agricola was informed by his scouts of the onslaught of the enemy: he gave orders for the swiftest of his horse and foot to attack them in the rear. This was done. At the break of day the whole Roman army raised a shout, and their standards glittered in the rays of the rising sun. The Caledonians now found themselves between two forces, and, despairing of success, betook themselves to the shelter of the woods and marshes. This engagement inspirited the Romans and the Caledonians; the former were wishful to penetrate into the heart of Caledonia without delay, while the latter, attributing their defeat to chance and the generalship of Agricola, began to arm their youth, to send their wives and children to places of security, and to confirm a general confederacy of their several clans by solemn assemblies and sacrifices. During the summer of Agricola, having sent forward his fleet to ravage

1

2

1 The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 26.

2 Chap. 27.

84,