*

making a memorandum of any occurrence generally, to be done in haste (for a man of business is never in a hurry) expedition is the object in view but in making the proper entry of the occurrence in regular books and registers, as time can never be wanting, so deliberation and care can never be dispensed with.

Nothing tends more to the acquisition of a good manner of writing than a proper mode of holding the pen, and an attitude of the hand, arm, and whole body, at once natural, easy, and graceful. If a writer suffer himself, or be suffered by his instructor, to contract a stiff, constrained, or awkward manner, in the management of his pen, or the position of his body at the desk, his operations will be as irksome and even painful to himself, as they must be ludicrous or disgusting in the eyes of by-standers. In this, as in every human action in which the influence of habit is of importance, we are constantly to remember the old counsel; to choose and practise what is the best, and custom will make it the most agreeable. The proper attitudes and motions of the body in writing, can be learned much more speedily, and much more effectually, from the instructions and example of a skilful teacher, than from whole volumes on the subject. The most therefore that ought to be expected in this place, can be only some general advices, to be adopted by the good sense of each writer to his own peculiar case. The pen is held in the right hand, between the thumb and the fore and middle fingers. The middle finger partly on the side and partly on the back, opposite to the head of the cut or cradle of the pen, and the fore finger close to it on the back; both quite straight. The thumb supports the other side of the pen, and is a little bent, in order to give it an easy motion. The fourth finger is turned in towards the palm, and the little finger stretched out even with those holding the pen, rests upon the paper, to support the hand. The elbow should be kept so near to the body, as to allow its motion to be easy and unconstrained, neither stiffly touching the side, nor ridiculously sprawling over the table. In this position the pen will be held in a direction pointing to the right shoulder. The arm rests lightly on the table or desk, between the elbow and the wrist: but the breast should never touch either. The pen is held just so firmly as to keep it in its proper place; for if it be griped hard the learner will never acquire ease and· expedition in writing.

This is one of several Latin terms, commonly occurring in English and other modern writings, as well as in conversation. In English to express the plural num-" ber, or more than one thing of any sort, we in general add the letters to the name of the thing in the singular number; as thing, things, &c. In Latin the plural is expressed in various ways, according to particular circumstances in the nature of the name. The names of objects ending with the syllable um in the singular number, are made to express the plural by changing um into a. For instance, one single thing which we would lay down in our pocket-book, to be remembered on some future occasion, is in Latin called a memorandum : but two or any greater number of things to be remembered are properly expressed by the Latin plural memoranda. Other terms of the same description are datum, a thing granted or admitted in reasoning, on which an argument may be founded; in the plural data, things granted: erratum an error or mistake, bas in the plural errata, errors or mistakes; terins usually employed in books, to point out and correct mistakes in the printing: stratum signifying a bed or layer of any sort, in the plural strata, beds or layers of substances placed the one upon the other, as the stone in a quarry, the coal in the mine, the earth, gravel, clay, &c. as they appear in opening a canal, or sinking a well.

In selecting examples for imitation, engraved specimens are to be preferred to written: for the engraver working deliberately and mechanically with his tools, and re-touching the plate until his work be to his satisfaction, is able to produce letters, words, and lines, much more regular and uniform in shape and proportion, than any which, unless the writer be singularly accomplished indeed, can be executed by the hand and pen. In printing, Italic as well as Roman characters, each individual letter stands detached by itself: but in writing all the letters of a word are regularly united by delicate hair-strokes, so as apparently to be executed by one continued motion of the pen. This indeed ought to be the case; and the cutting of the t, the pointing of the and all other minute operations, necessary for completing the writing, should be reserved till the whole word be executed. This practice of joining letters together is not confined to Europe. The Turks, Arabians, Persians and some other eastern nations, who set a very particular value upon beautiful writing, indulge themselves so much in artificial and ornamental modes of uniting their characters together, that where this is not skilfully done, it gives them a disgust, of which we in these parts of the world can form no idea. These unions of letters can be executed by the pen and the graver alone: with separate printing-types they are impracticable. Hence arises, and long will arise, among the orientals, a very powerful objection to the introduction of European knowledge, religious, scientific, political, and historical, in works issuing from the printing-press, although in their own languages and characters, however correctly and handsomely executed. Among the Mahometans the use of the press, in matters connected with religion, is considered a sort of profanation. Of this great impediment to the introduction of literature into the East, our laudable missionary and Bible societies are, no doubt, sufficiently aware: at the same time that, under the auspices of our East India company, efforts have, for several years, been making, to furnish the natives of their vast dominions in Asia, with printed books, accommodated as much as possible to their various tastes and prejudices.

If it be difficult to give precise and intelligible directions for placing the body and managing the pen in writing, it is still much more difficult to instruct the beginner how to turn a quill into a pen, or how to repair his pen when disordered by use. In this a few prac tical lessons from a skilful maker and mender will be of more service than any verbal instructions. The following general observations will nevertheless be of service. With the back of the pen-knife scrape the thin scurf from a good goose-quill, particularly on the back, that the slit may be sound and clean. Then cut the quill half through, near the point, on the back, and quite through on the opposite side, half an inch from the point. With the edge of the knife make a very short slit in the back-notch, and with the end of the knife-haft, or another whole quill, by a quick pressure upwards, open the slit to a proper length, which will be fixed by pressing hard on the back of the quill, with the nail of the left thumb. By several applications of the knife the quill is brought into the proper

H

shape of a pen, ending in a fine point which must be made even, or nibbed, in this way. Place the inside of the nib on the nail of the left thumb, holding the pen between the fore and middle fingers of the same hand. Place the knife upon the nib, and cut it through by a change of position from a slope to right across; and then by other cuts give the finishing strokes to the pen. It is to be remembered that if, upon trial, the slit or the nib do not answer, they ought not to be scraped; for that always makes them rough or ragged. When the nib therefore requires alteration, it is mended by nibbing just as when first made. The breadth of the nib and the length of the slit are regulated by the breadth and strength of the black down-strokes intended to be written. The learner should accustom himself in writing to bear as lightly as possible on his pen. By this method he will be able at all times to draw not only a fine hair-stroke, but a down stroke of any particular breadth and strength that may be required. For this reason, a hard stiff pen, requiring much pressure to produce effect, will never answer for writing an easy, flowing elegant hand. Another advantage of a soft flexible pen, in a light hand is, that it will last much longer fit for service, than one that is stiff and unyielding in the fingers of a heavy writer. But however desirable economy in pens may be, we no longer live in the days when a man who desires his writing to be agreeable, or even legible, can adopt the following lines of the renowned translator-general, of his time, as he was called, the idefatigable Dr. Philemon Holland of Coventry, who having, two centuries ago, written out a large folio volume, with one single pen, recorded the exploit in these words.

"With one sole pen I writ this book,
"Made of a grey-goose quill;

"A

pen it was when it I took, "And a pen I leave it still."

Some inconsiderate and affected admirers of the wonderful Shakspeare, have asserted that he never corrected or altered the dramatic scenes that flowed from his prolific pen. This, if it be a fact, proves that the writer wanted time, or wanted spirits, or wanted the necessary means of subsistence, to enable him to alter, amend, efface, numberless passages, which his own better judgment and taste must have condemned: but it by no means testifies that he fell into no errors, or omitted no improvements, to which a man of his singular genius would in other circumstances, have carefully attended.

"Poets lose half the praise they would have got, "Were it but known what they discreetly blot." To execute any operation, literary or mechanical, without error or mistake, is beyond all reasonable expectation. The young penman therefore will not be discouraged if, in his first attempts, his performances come much short of his purposes and expectations. When mistakes therefore do occur, he must exert himself to correct what is amiss, and be more careful in future. Any one may do any common thing in some way, it is a few only comparatively, who can do it well.

better or worse: When a wrong

stroke, letter, word, or sentence shall, through inadvertency, find its way into a piece of writing, the error can be remedied by erasing alone. The surface of writing paper is covered with a size or fine glue, which prevents the ink from spreading over the paper. If this surface be taken off, by erasing with a knife, the ink will immediately sink into, and spread through the substance of the paper, producing a blot or blemish hardly afterwards to be removed. To restore this necessary property to the paper, a new solid surface must be produced, which is done in two ways: either by rubbing it with some smooth hard body, to give it a due degree of polish and solidity to bear the ink, or which is much easier, by rubbing into the paper some substances capable of resisting the power of the ink. These are in general, the resins flowing or drawn from trees and other vegetables. The common resin of the fir and pine trees, when dry, and reduced to a fine powder, may be employed in this way, but its yellowish hue does not suit the complexion of paper. Sandarac is also used: it is a resinous extract of the juniper-tree. These substances all go among us under a general name, pounce, a corruption of the French ponce, signifying pumice. a production thrown out by volcanoes; being a real glass, in the form of small brilliant filaments, composing a porous mass, generally much lighter than water. When pumice is powdered, its colour approaches nearer to that of paper, than that of any of the other substitutes. In erasing, the scraper or knife should be applied lightly, but for a considerable time: then the spot is to be well smoothed and polished with the haft or end of the knife, rubbing on a piece of clean paper over the erasure; after which a little pounce is rubbed on the spot with a piece of paper; when the proper letters, &c. may be written in, as if no erasure had taken place.

When the writing is completed and dry, the lead or pencil lines used in ruling the paper, are effaced with a piece of caoutchouc, commonly called Indian rubber: in the absence of this the crumb of stale wheaten bread answers very well.

WRITING INKS.

These are either black or red: but the former is the most in use, as forming the most complete contrast with the white of the paper. When to an infusion of gall-nuts, (a very improper name for a vegetable excrescence, produced on some trees by an insect) some green copperas (procured from iron dissolved in oil of vitriol) is added, a very dark blue substance is thrown down to the bottom of the vessel. This is a combination of the iron of the green vitriol with the acid of the galls, and is the basis of writing ink. But if galls and green copperas only were employed, the black precipitate would all settle to the bottom, leaving the water of the infusion clear and colourless. In order to keep this precipitate suspended in the infusion, gum-arabic is added, which by its viscid and adhesive quality, supports the black substance equally distributed through the whole liquor. The important

qualities of ink are that it be durable and of a good black colour. To attain these qualities, it ought to be the great study of the manufacturer to introduce into his ink a superabundance of astringent matter, (galls,) to oppose the tendency of the iron to a further calcination or oxydation; for it is this process of turning the iron to rust, that changes black ink to brown. For this purpose, it would be a material improvement if some astringent matter were introduced into the substance of the paper itself, in the manufacture. A little strong spirits put into ink will keep it from turning brown but then it makes it sink and spread in the paper.

Various recipes have been given for composing writing ink; but few are founded on a knowledge of the chemical or other properties of the several ingredients recommended, and of the changes which a course of time and exposure to the air may produce. The following recipe is given in the lectures of the great chemist, the late Professor Black, of Edinburgh. Take in the given proportions, of rasped logwood 1 ounce; of best gall-nuts in coarse powder 3 ounces; of gum-arabic in powder 2 ounces; of green vitriol 1 ounce; of rain-water 2 quarts; of cloves in coarse powder 1 drachm. Boil the water with the logwood and gum, down to one half: strain the hot decoction into a glazed vessel: add the galls and cloves: mix the whole well, and cover it up. When nearly cold add the green vitriol, and stir the infusion repeatedly. After some days, decant or strain the ink into a bottle, to be kept close corked, in a dark place.

The following recipe is given by an eminent chemist in France, where, of late years, the beauty and durability of writing ink have become objects of careful and scientific inquiry. Take of Aleppo galls in coarse powder 8 ounces; of logwood in thin chips 4 ounces; of green copperas 4 ounces; of gum-arabic in powder 3 ounces; of blue vitriol one ounce; of sugar-candy 1 ounce. Boil the log-wood and galls together in 12 pounds of water, for 1 hour, or till half the liquid be evaporated. Strain the decoction through a hair sieve or linen cloth, and then add the other ingredients. Stir the mixture till the whole be dissolved, particularly the gum; after which leave it to subside for 24 hours. Then decant the ink, and preserve it in bottles of glass or stone-ware well corked.

Ink is often of a pale colour when first used: but it grows black when exposed to the air. This is owing to its uniting with the oxygen, the principle of acidity, and one of the component principles of our atmosphere: for the iron in the green vitriol not being saturated with oxygen, it absorbs still more from the air, and is then converted into the red oxyde, or what we call

rust.

Red Ink is usually made in this way: Take of the raspings of Brasil-wood a quarter of a pound, and infuse them for two or three days in vinegar: boil the infusion afterwards for an hour, over a gentle fire, and filter it while hot. Set it again on the fire, and dissolve in it first half an ounce of gum-arabic, and afterwards, of alum and white sugar, each half an ounce.

Printing Ink is in fact a black paint, composed of lamp-black