report, prepared by himself, on the excavations lately made by the Exploration Committee of the Anthropological Institute in Cissbury Camp, near Worthing, Sussex, and illustrated it by a series of diagrams and models and a large collection of fiint implements, flakes, &c. The animal remains found in the excavations, including the skeleton of a woman, were exhibited and described by Professor Rolleston, F.R.S.

Institution of Civil Engineers, Nov. 23.-Mr. Thos. E. Harrison, the president, in the chair. The paper read was On experiments on the movement of air in pneumatic tubes, by M. Charles Bontemps, Engineer in the French postal service.

EDINBURGH

Scottish Meteorological Society, Nov. 15.-At a meeting of the council of this society there was read a correspondence between Mr. Archibald Young, Fishery Commissioner, and Mr. T. Stevenson, the honorary secretary, regarding an investigation into the habits of the salmon.-Besides other elaborate investigations of a national character which the society has at different times undertaken, an inquiry, suggested by the president, the Marquis of Tweeddale, into the meteorological conditions which are supposed to affect the migrations of the herring, is being carried out by Mr. Buchan. For this purpose the temperature of the sea is observed at different parts of the coast; and stations where maximum and minimum thermometers are constantly immersed have been established. The investigation into the habits of fishes is now to be further extended to those of the salmon. For some years back observations have been made by Mr. Paulin on the depth and temperature of the water and the takes of fish in the Tweed, and these are being discussed by

Mr. Paulin and Mr. Buchan. Observations were also made for some years on the temperature of the Doon in Ayrshire. But the inquiry suggested by Mr. Young has more especial reference to the question of the earliness or lateness of the different rivers, which among other causes may be found to be due to the temperature of the fresh water as compared with that of the salt water into which the rivers discharge. It is hoped that by means of this investigation the causes which produce late and early rivers may be elicited, and the best times for closing and opening different rivers for fishing may be more satisfactorily determined than at present. On the suggestion of Mr. Young, different late and early rivers have been selected for observation, and the necessary arrangements for carrying these on are being established, and those connected with the river Ugie, in Aberdeenshire, are now completed, and the observations will be commenced immediately. At Peterhead the Harbour Commissioners have on the suggestion of Mr. Stevenson established a station for thermometers under continuous immersion, which has for some years been superintended by Mr. Boyd, who is a member of the Committee, and who has kindly undertaken, in connection with the sea-temperatures at Peterhead, to ascertain those of the fresh waters of the Ugie.

DUBLIN

Royal Irish Academy, Nov. 8.-Dr. Stokes, F.R.S., pre sident, in the chair.-Dr. S. Ferguson, V.P., read a paper On the alleged literary forgery respecting Sun-worship on Mount Callan. The Secretary read a paper by Dr. Doberck, On the binary stars, 44 Bootis, Cassiopeiae, and μ Draconis (this paper will appear in an early number of the "Transactions.")Dr. Macalister read Notes on anomalies in the course and distribution of nerves in man. The following parts of voi. xxv. of "Transactions" were laid on the table-Part 16, Researches on the Structure of the Spines of the Diadematidæ, by H. W. Mackintosh plates 31 to 33; part 17, on Nine-point Contact of Cubic Curves, by Dr. Hart; part 18, Experiments on the Movements of Water in Plants (part ii.), by Prof. M'Nab, M.D.; part 19, on the Binary Stars & Coronæ, 7 Ophiuchi, y Leonis, Aqaurii, 36 Andromeda, and Leonis, by Dr. Doberck; part 20, Report on the Superinduced Divisional Structure of Rocks called Jointing, and its Relation to Slaty Cleavage, by Dr. W. King (plates 34 to 38); this part concludes vol. xxv., and is accompanied by a title-page and table of contents; also the July and October parts of the "Proceedings."

PARIS

Academy of Sciences, Nov. 22.-M. Frémy in the chair. The following papers were read :-Thermal researches on citric acid, by MM. Berthelot and Longuinine. - Remarks on the interpretation of two tables of chemical analyses, by M. Duchartre. This refers to treatment of beet.-On the periodicity of

great movements of the atmosphere, by M. Sainte-Claire Deville. From two years' observations he shows a quadruple, dodecuple, and tridodecuple period in recurrence of barometric maxima and minima in the year.-Continued observations of eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter, made at the Observatory of Toulouse, by M. Tisserand.-New observations on the law of expansion in steam-engines, by M. Ledieu.-Remarks on the Balanides of the Japan seas, àpropos of the cranium of a Cetacean of this group sent to the Museum by the Japanese Government, by M. Gervais.-M. Pierre exhibited a specimen of fibres of remarkable length and tenacity, obtained by setting a stem of Lavatera. -On the mechanism and the causes of changes of colour in the chameleon, by M. Bert. There are two sets of nerves, the one bringing vaso-constrictor nerves), the other bringing them under the the coloured corpuscles out to the surface (and comparable to dermis (corresponding to the vaso-dilator nerves). Each cerebral hemisphere commands nerves on both sides of the body, and is generally excited through the eye on the other side; but it acts chiefly on nerves of the vaso-constrictor type on its own side, and the other kind on the opposite side. Blue violet rays act directly on the corpuscles, bringing them to the surface. -Granitic diluBeynes and St. Cloud, by M. Salvetat.-On the electrolysis of vium in the neighbourhood of Paris; Lithology of the sands of bodies of the aromatic series, by M. Goppelsrceder. On the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in soils, by M. Truchot.-Water of the Vanne, and distilled water; examination of the salt of brine, by M. Monier.-On the construction of lightning conduccomposition of the swellings produced on the vine by Phylloxera, by tors, by M. Saint-Edme.-On the formation, structure, and deby M. Flammarion.-New examples of representation, by geoM. Max. Cornu. -Observations on the planet Jupiter (continued), metrical figures, of the analytical conceptions of geometry of n dimensions, by Mr. Spottiswoode.-On employment of marine chronometers in the German navy, by M. Peters.-On coordinated surfaces, such that at every point considered as centre of a sphere of constant radius, the normals to the surfaces, form in this sphere the apices of a spherical triangle of constant area, by M. Aoust.-On the numbers of Bernouilli, by M. Le Paise. On a reaction of the homologues of ethylene, which may explain their absence in the natural petroleums, by M. Le Bel.Remarks apropos of the discovery of gailium, by M. Mendeleef. In accordance with a law he enunciated in 1869, he thinks the new metal may be ekaaluminium.-On the saccharification of amylaceous matters, by M. Bondonneau.-On stripping off the leaves of the beet, by M. Violette.-Troïlite; its true mineralogical and chemical place, by Mr. Lawrence Smith.-On certain alterations of agates and silex, by M. Friedel—On explosive compounds; influence of the fuse on compressed gun-cotton, by MM. Champion and Pellet.-Researches on the functions of the spleen, by MM. Malassez and Picard. The increase of globular richness in the blood of splenic tissue is not due to concentration of blood, for the quantity of iron diminishes.-On the ichthyologic fauna of the Isle of Saint Paul, by M. Sauvage.-Examination of rain-water in the udometers of Paris Observatory, Oct. 14 to Nov. 15, 1875, by M. Gerardin. -On the action of monohydrated and trihydrated phosphoric acid on coagulation of blood, by M. Oré.

FARM

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 9, 1875

SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE ARMING is a complex business. It embraces a greater variety of objects and interests than any other industrial pursuit. Its two great ends are the production of crops and the production of animals. It is among the oldest occupations of man. Its history has been very peculiar. In our own day the system of farming pursued by the great bulk of occupiers of land is far behind the state of agricultural knowledge; and many of the practices of the most enlightened of our farmers are based on empirical data. Various agencies have been proposed for promoting agricultural progress. For the instruction of the mass we must look chiefly to the diffusion of agricultural knowledge through the medium of ordinary schools and colleges, as was pointed out some time ago in NATURE. For further progress in the acquisition of accurate knowledge we must look chiefly to experimental investigations.

In Germany they have had in operation for some years a number of experimental stations which are partly supported by the State, and which are said to work satisfactorily. France and other European countries are following the example of Germany. Recently the subject has been ventilated in Great Britain. It has been forced on our attention by a number of persons who are seemingly desirous of giving to the farmer every aid which science can suggest.

British experience of experimental stations is very limited. We happen to have one at Rothamstead in England, which was described in NATURE last year, and which we owe to the enterprise of Mr. John Bennett Lawes, F.R.S., the great manure manufacturer. He has for upwards of thirty years used a part of his estate for experimental purposes. He has published the results in a vast number of papers. The whole is the work of the man himself. He has had no aid from the Government or any agricultural society, and no advice from any committee or public body. He has obtained a larger body of facts in relation to manures and cropping, and the feeding of animals, than all the agricultural societies in the empire put together. It is manifestly desirable to dwell on his labours and to contrast them with the more public system projected elsewhere.

To Mr. Lawes' experiments I hope to be able to devote another paper before long. For the present I shall merely draw attention to the circumstances on which, in my judgment, the success which has attended his labours has depended. Mr. Lawes has not had an unqualified success, especially in drawing inferences from his facts. But his writings afford ample evidence of great earnestness of purpose. His manly, outspoken language shows that he loves truth for its own sake. He has had ample resources; and he has had the motive of selfinterest, as well as love of knowledge, to stimulate him in his investigations.

Here, then, we have a private individual who, unaided by the State, or by any scientific body, has made a greater number of useful experiments than all the experimental farms of European Governments put together. Had the British Government established experimental stations VOL. XIII.-No. 319

before Mr. Lawes commenced, would he have established his? And if not, would British agriculture have derived more useful results from the governmental stations than from his ?

These are questions which cannot be answered by direct evidence. We possess, however, data which enable us to throw light upon them. It is notorious that the agriculture of Scotland has made great progress within the past one hundred years. The improvement of agriculture within that period has been greater in parts of Scotland than in any part of England. Yet the demand for means of effecting further progress is greater among the most advanced farmers of Scotland than among the most advanced English farmers. There is no man in Scotland who has come forward, or offers to come forward, to do for Scotland what Mr. Lawes has done and offers to do for England. The friends of agricultural progress in Scotland are endeavouring to effect, by co-operation, what the private enterprise of Mr. Lawes is doing for England. The subject has been discussed in English agricultural classes, more or less, for several years. The discussion has during the past few weeks assumed a practical shape to which it may be useful to refer. A member of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, Mr. Randell, desires to "prove, by a series of experiments, under every variety of soil and circumstances, how far the accuracy of the estimated value of manures obtained by the consumption of different articles of food as given by Mr. Lawes, is confirmed by practical results." Mr. Randell was supported by the Earl of Lichfield and Lord Vernon, and the matter was referred to the Chemical Committee of the Society. Mr. Randell has so far confined himself to one point, which has been suggested to his mind by the passing of the Agricultural Holdings Act of 1875. If one or more stations be established, the experiments would of course cover a wider field. The question arises at once, how are the experiments to be directed? Could Mr. Lawes be induced to act as Director-General? He could be assisted by a representative council. In due time the best man to succeed him would appear.

In Scotland the movement has of late been agitated with energy and intelligence. The Royal Agricultural Society of that country, better known as the Highland Society, has a large surplus fund, and contains among its members the leading gentry, many enlightened professional men, and a great array of intelligent farmers. It has been suggested that some of this fund should be applied to the maintenance of experimental stations. Several reports and suggestions have been made. It is said that a sum of 700l. a year, and no more, is available for the purpose.

One of the reports goes on to state that "considering the advantages which had already been derived from chemistry in its application to agriculture, it was expedient to reorganise a chemical department under the cognisance of the Society, for the purpose of conducting investigations on all subjects relating to agriculture; and that in connection therewith a series of carefully conducted experiments in the open ground be instituted." The directors found that the Society had at its disposal, for the purpose of the chemical department and field experiments, a sum of 700/., which they recommended should be set aside for a period of seven years.

G

In

carrying out these recommendations they suggested that the 700/. should be expended as follows:-"Chemist's salary, 300/.; agricultural inspector's salary, 150l.," &c.

The report must render it plain to anyone who has had experience in experimental work of the kind contemplated that this part of the recommendation is based on imperfect knowledge. What evidence is there in the history of the Society, or elsewhere, which goes to show that the best man to initiate and conduct investigations on all subjects relating to agriculture should be a professional chemist? Such a man should have a good general knowledge of all the sciences relating to agriculture. He should be well known as a man of broad views and great grasp of mind. He should, moreover, be thoroughly conversant with the details of modern agriculture. He should have given evidence of being imbued with an ardent desire to elicit truth, as well as of his taste and fitness for conducting experiments. We submit that a really good chemist, possessing all these qualifications, can seldom be found. he exists in Scotland, let him by all means be made director of the proposed station or stations; not, however, because he is a chemist, but because he is the best man. There are many chemists who would doubtless be glad to accept such an appointment, and who would be as unfit for it as for the direction of the Channel fleet. It seems incredible that any body of thoughtful men would propose to trust the initiation and direction of experiments on crops and animals to a man who would not necessarily know anything of the habits of either.

If

A most peculiar part of the report of the committee to which the Highland Society referred the consideration of this question is the remuneration (150%. a year) they propose for an agricultural inspector. If the views of the committee were acted on, the bona fide value of the

experiments would depend on this officer. He should be an accomplished agriculturist. He should possess great intelligence, the highest personal character, and the most rigid love of truth, as well as the sternest sense of duty. He would be expected to initiate experiments from which results of national importance would flow. And this is the man for whom the munificent sum of 150/. year is proposed! If a man like Mr. Lawes were to undertake the duty, he would accept no remuneration. In this case 150l. a year may be a fair sum to cover travelling and other expenses. But if a competent man is to be employed who cannot afford to work gratuitously, a salary equal to that of the average of intelligent professional men must be offered. This part of the Report has been already denounced in strong and emphatic language; and we understand it has been opposed by leading members of the Society who value science and appreciate the work to be done. The action of the committee has been openly exposed by Mr. David Milne Home, an ardent advocate of the application of science to agriculture, and by Mr. John Wilson, of Eddington Mains, a truly enlightened farmer. These gentlemen contend that the directing head or body should have the power to call in the professional aid of the best chemist or chemists, and such other experts as may be needed. This view is based on If they prevail in the councils of the Society, we may expect to see ere long in Scotland agricultural stations which in all human probability will give a new stimulus to agricultural progress. If they fail, and

common sense.

the work is entrusted to men who are not in every way equal to it, we may get an annual crop of worthless or misleading results, like those which have formed so large a portion of our agricultural literature.

While the Royal Agricultural Society of Scotland is discussing these matters, a local Agricultural Association formed in Aberdeenshire has actually fixed sites for five stations, at which experiments will be conducted for three years. The Marquis of Huntley is president of

the Society, and Mr. Barclay M.P., is among the active members. A sum exceeding 1,000l. has been already subscribed. For the present the experiments will be confined to the determination of the best states in which to apply phosphates and nitrogen. Each plot is to be 1-112th part of an acre. It is to be regretted that potash and one or two other constituents of plants will not be tried. In some respects the scheme devised by the Association corresponds with that which I have carried out at Glasnevin for several years, and the results of which I have not, owing to pressure of other work, been able to publish. In the Glasnevin experimental ground the several crops are crossed by the manures; and thus we bring out the results in a striking way, and guard against inequalities in the soil. We also raised three consecutive grain crops without manure before commencing the experiments. THOMAS BALDWIN

THE NEW GEOMETRY

Syllabus of Plane Geometry (corresponding to Euclid, Books i.-vi.) Prepared by the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching. (London: Macmillan, 1875.)

THE readers of NATURE are so well acquainted with

the genesis and growth of the Association whose syllabus has recently been given to the public, that we are relieved from all necessity of explaining what objects it has in view. The main result of its five years of labour is this Syllabus, and we shall here briefly exhibit some of its chief features. It is a double syllabus, being a syllabus of geometrical constructions and a syllabus of plane geometry. The former is very brief, and contains such constructions as can be made with the ruler and compasses only. This subject of constructive geometry has been tried in many schools of late and has been found generally to answer the end in view. Boys thus obtain some idea of the objects of pure geometry and of what is involved in the postulates of the science. The more important syllabus is prefaced by a Logical Introduction not that the Association wishes "to imply by this that the study of geometry ought to be preceded by a study of the logical independence of associated theorems." The opinion of the compilers is "that at first all the steps by which any theorem is demonstrated should be carefully gone through by the student, rather than that its truth should be inferred from the logical rules here laid down. At the same time they strongly recommend an early application of general logical principles." The President, in one of his addresses, states that the object of this introduction is "to guide the teacher immediately, and the student ultimately." It contains certain general axioms (as the whole is greater than its part), and taking as its typical theorem, if A is B

Anything like national or tribal union, however, seems untraceable, although at various periods, no doubt, the small communities of particular districts have united against a common enemy. The only communities which Dr. Rink can trace as anything like permanent are-1. The Family, the tie which unites the various members of which seems to be very strong; 2. The Housemates, or inhabitants of a house; for generally, except recently in some parts of Danish Greenland, one house sheltered two or more families which necessarily had many things in common, and many mutual duties and obligations; and 3. Place-fellows, or the inhabitants of the same hamlet or wintering-place, among whom communism in certain matters was distinctly recognised. Dr. Rink describes with some fulness the principal laws with regard to property and gain which are recognised as regulating the life of these three divisions of the various Eskimo groups.

Dr. Rink is strongly of opinion that the Eskimo are an indigenous American people, who have been pushed northwards by the intrusive Indian tribes, who are frequently referred to in the Tales contained in the volume, under the name of "Inlanders." In the frequent reference to conflicts and other dealings with the Inlanders Dr. Rink finds a confirmation of his theory, but we think it would equally well support a theory which maintained that the Eskimo themselves are the intruders. We are inclined to think that the theory broached by Mr. C. R. Markham in the R.G.S. "Papers on Arctic Geography and Ethnology" (1875) is quite as consistent with all the facts as Dr. Rink's, if not more so. Mr. Markham adduces very cogent reasons for believing that at no very remote period the Eskimo entered America from Asia by Behring Straits, driven to do so by the pushing northwards of the hordes from Central Asia. We doubt if these Tales and Traditions will help us much towards a knowledge of the origin and early history of the Eskimo. Indeed we doubt very much if we have yet data sufficient to authorise us to pronounce with anything like confidence on the subject.

posing a text such as might agree best with the supposed original and most popular mode of telling the same story." For general purposes this method is, no doubt, quite satisfactory, but if these tales and traditions are to be of any service in enabling us to trace the origin of the Eskimo, the investigator should have before him all the supposed variations of the same original. By comparing these with each other, and with similar materials obtained

The volume contains in all 150 Eskimo tales and traditions, some of which, however, are only fragments. They have been taken down from the recital of natives of South and North and East Greenland and of Labrador. A vast amount of material was thus collected, many of the tales being evidently variants of one original. This material Dr. Rink has redacted, "all the variations being most carefully examined and compared for the purpose of com

from the Western and Asiatic Eskimo, and with the neighbouring Siberian and Indian tribes, we should think it not unlikely that some valuable hints might be obtained as to the Eskimo migrations. No one is more competent than Dr. Rink for such a task, if undertaken without prepossession in favour of any hypothesis.

The tales are roughly divided into ancient and recent The former may be regarded as the property of the whole.