versities of Heidelberg and Bonn, gaining in the latter the prize for a dissertation on the Hebrew sources of the Koran. In 1832 he became a rabbi at Wiesbaden, and he is now (1859) rabbi at Breslau. His efforts to effect reforms in Judaism made him for some years the most conspicuous Jewish theologian in Germany. From 1835 to 1847 he edited the Zeitschrift für Judische Theologie, beside which he has published several critical woks. His Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mischna appeared at Breslau in 1845, and his Leon da Modena and Jüdische Dichtungen in 1855.

GEIJER, ERIC GUSTAF, a Swedish historian and poet, born in Ransäter, Wermeland, Jan. 12, 1783, died in Upsal, April 24, 1847. In his Minnen ("Reminiscences") he has given vivid descriptions of the wild district of his birth, with its forests and torrents, the smoke and din of his father's foundery, and the simple, earnest, and upright inhabitants, who pleased him more in his school days than all his learned masters. At the age of 16 he was sent to the university of Upsal, where for a time he followed diligently the routine of study, though he expressed his conviction that the solemn forms and disputations in vogue would become the laughingstock of future ages. He neglected to take his degree at the proper time, and consequently in 1803 was refused a tutorship in a distinguished family which his friends had sought to obtain for him. "This," he says, 66 was my first experience of the worth of a name and a reputation. It seemed to me that the entire world had their eyes fixed on me; my whole being was in commotion." To restore his reputation he at once determined to contend for the next prize of the Swedish academy for excellence in composition. With very meagre authorities, and with scarcely paper enough for his manuscript, he wrote a eulogy upon the Swedish administrator Steno Sturé, which obtained the first prize. Among the young men whose acquaintance he now formed was the poet Tegner. Devoting himself with ardor to study, he was graduated master of arts in 1806, and after a short visit to England was appointed in 1810 lecturer (docent) upon history at Upsal, and was a second time crowned by the academy for an essay on the question: "What advantages may be derived from the imagination in the moral education of man?" In 1811 he was one of the 12 young men who founded the Gothic society, the object of which was to nurture a national spirit and national manners, and to derive the materials of literature, not from classical and foreign sources, but from the ancient traditions of the North. The new school was quickly divided into two parties, the Gothic and more moderate party, of which Geijer and Tegner were the chiefs, and whose organ was the Iduna, and the Phosphorist party, so called from its organ the Phosphoros, of which Atterbom was the chief, and which unfurled the banner of a wild and unbounded romanticism. In the early numbers of the Iduna, which appeared from

1811 to 1824, Geijer published his finest poems, as the "Viking," the "Last Scald," and the "Last Champion," which became immediately popular. His song of the "Charcoal_Boy" is still a favorite throughout Sweden. In 1814'16 he united with Afzelius in preparing a collection of Swedish popular ballads, and after most diverse studies of philosophy, æsthetics, history, and theology, was in 1817 elevated to the professorship of history at Upsal to succeed Fant. His lectures had an almost unprecedented success, attracting not only students but the most cultivated ladies and gentlemen of Upsal. He prepared them with great care, founding his wide syntheses and striking epitomes on a thorough collation of sources. Music was & powerful assistant to him in every kind of labor, and he was wont to play on the piano as a preparation alike for writing a lecture or a song. Liberal both in politics and religion, he was twice offered a bishopric, which he declined, and twice represented the university of Upsal in the diet. His heavy censure of the nobility, and of the part which they played in the early history of Sweden, gave rise to a lively controversy with Fryxell. Many of his minor pieces, in which he treated political, literary, and religious questions, are remarkable, but his chief distinction is as the historian of Sweden. He was appointed with Fant and Schröder to edit the collection of Scriptores Rerum Suecicarum Medii Evi (2 vols., Stockholm, 1818'25). His Svea Rikes Haefder ("Annals of Sweden," Upsal, 1825; translated into German, 1826) is a collection of dissertations on the early history and antiquittes of the kingdom. His principal work is the Svenska Folkets Historia ("History of the Swedish People," 3 vols., Örebro, 1832-6; translated into German by Leffler, Hamburg, 1832-6; into French by Lundblad, Paris, 1840; and into English by Turner, London, 1845), which extends only to the death of Queen Christina, but has been continued by Carlson. The work of Fryxell is also regarded as a supplement to it. At once a history of ideas, of manners, and of institutions, it is remarkable both for eloquence and learning, for its patriotic tone, synthetic views, and suggestive power. Among his minor publications are a "Sketch of the State of Sweden from Charles XII. to Gustavus III." (Upsal, 1839), and a "Life of Charles XIV. John," or Bernadotte (Upsal, 1844). A complete edition of his works was published at Stockholm (13 vols., 1849-'55).

GEINE (Gr. yn, the earth), a name formerly given by Berzelius to the insoluble residue left by treating the substance he called humus with alkaline solutions. Dr. Samuel L. Dana considered it the same as humus, the decomposed organic matter of the soil, and regarded it as a definite substance which it is the object of the cultivator to produce in the compost heap. His views are fully presented in the "Final Report on the Geology of Massachusetts," by Prof. Hitchcock (vol. i. p. 37 et seq., and p. 121 et

seq.), and in the table of about 150 analyses of soils, commencing on p. 41, he presents the proportions of geine, soluble and insoluble, these

contained.

GELA, an ancient city of southern Sicily, on a river of the same name, now Fiume di Terra Nuova, founded (about 690 B. C.) by a colony of Rhodians from Lindus and Cretans. It soon became flourishing, and was the parent of Agrigentum, now Girgenti, which afterward surpassed the might of the mother city. The popular constitution of Gela was overthrown by Cleander, who was the first of its tyrants. His brother Hippocrates succeeded him, and extended its influence and power over the greatest part of Sicily. His successor Gelon's transfer of the seat of his power and of a part of the inhabitants of Gela to Syracuse (485), his brother Hiero being made governor of the former, caused its decay; and its desolation was completed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, who removed its inhabitants to a new town, to which he gave his name (280). In the time of Augustus it was already in ruins, which are still visible in the vicinity of Terra Nuova.

GELATINE, a jelly extracted from animal tissues, by boiling them in water. Isinglass and glue are varieties, an account of which will be included in this article. In its purer forms, as the commercial gelatine and isinglass prepared for food, it is in colorless, transparent, thin sheets or shreds of semi-horny texture, without taste or smell, varying in toughness according to the particular tissue from which it is prepared. It dissolves in hot water, and becomes a jelly of stiffness proportionate to the quantity dissolved. The colder the temperature the smaller is the quantity of water required for the jelly to appear. Exposure of the solution to greater heat than 212° F., as also frequent repetition of the process of liquefying and gelatinizing, lessens the consistency of the jelly in proportion to the heat applied and the length of time the solution is kept warm. The property of gelatinizing is also partially lost if the solution begins to sour. The common method of keeping and employing glue in the glue-pot made to prevent an accession of temperature above 212° F., is based upon this property. The tendency to putrefaction in glue may be prevented by adding acetic acid, which does not affect its adhesive quality. The presence of gelatine in a solution is indicated by the dense white precipitate caused by the addition of a solution of tannin, such as that contained in the solution of galls. Reciprocally gelatine is a test of the presence of tannic acid. Alcohol does not dissolve gelatine; but added to its aqueous solution, which should be warm and somewhat concentrated, the gelatine coagulates in a white, elastic mass, which strongly adheres to the vessel. Gelatine is also insoluble in ether and the oils. The addition of alcohol to gelatine in a state of jelly causes it to part with a portion of its water and contract greatly. A print has been taken upon a thin film of the jellied substance,

which being then reduced in size by this means was made to give upon stone a new impression of smaller but proportional dimensions. An enlarged print may be obtained by steeping the gelatine in cold water after it has received an impression. Gelatine is believed to consist, in 100 parts, of carbon 13 equivalents: = 50 per cent.; hydrogen 106.41; oxygen 5 = 25.64; nitrogen 217.95. Various methods are in use for preparing the gelatine sold for making jellies, blanc-mange, &c. For the best article the skins of calves' heads and other thick pieces which are unfit for the manufacture of leather are first freed from hair and thoroughly cleaned of flesh and fat, and well washed. They are then reduced by cutting machinery to small pieces or to a pulp, cold water being allowed to run through the pieces during this operation in order to remove all impurities. The pieces of skin or pulp are differently treated by different manufacturers in order to obtain the solution most readily, some employing the mechanical force of rollers in conjunction with the application of a temperature varying from 150° to 212°. When the solution is obtained it is clarified with some albuminous matter, as the white of eggs or ox blood, and after settling is drawn off upon shallow coolers, as plates of glass or slates. When partially dry, so that it can be cut into convenient shapes for handling, it is removed upon nets or placed in a vacuum drying apparatus to complete the process of desiccation. In the course of the preparation the article is flavored with essences. The French gelatine is said to be whiter than the English in consequence of their calves being killed at an earlier age. The hides of the ox are sometimes used as well as those of calves. Bones and ivory also are made to yield gelatine by subjecting them, when crushed, to water boiling at high temperatures in a digester, or to the action of steam gradually raised to the pressure of 32 pounds to the square inch, and thus kept for 34 hours. By this means their soluble portions are taken up, and the earthy matters, about 60 per cent. of the whole weight, are left behind, together with a soapy substance produced from the fat and lime of the bones. This residue is used for the manufacture of bone black, or the preparation of phosphorus, and is beside an excellent material for composts. The manufacture of gelatine has been largely carried on in France by first removing the earthy salts from bones by digesting them for many days in dilute hydrochloric acid, and afterward in boiling water. For this use the more porous bones of the heads of animals were preferred, and the clippings of button manufacturers. The acid liquors contain the phosphate of lime of the bones in the form of a soluble biphosphate, from which the phosphorus is obtained by the manufacturers of this article, and they also contain ammoniacal products, which render them valuable for composts. For a long time gelatine was largely employed in the hospitals and pauper establishments of Paris, as a cheap and,

as it was believed, very nutritive material for soups. Its value for this purpose was at last questioned, and the commission appointed to investigate its qualities reported unfavorably. (See ALIMENT.) Great skill, however, had been attained in the methods of manufacture, and this is still available in the extraction of gelatine from bones for other purposes. Even the dry bones of the mastodon had been made by the acid process to yield the gelatine for a soup. In the practice of 11 years at the hospital of St. Louis at Rheims the production from 100 parts of dried bones was as follows: gelatine 28.204, fat 7.216, bone residue 64.580. As the bones contained an average of only 30 per cent. of gelatine and 10 of fat, the process was much more perfect than that of the glue manufacturers, who obtained of gelatine only from 10 to 15 per cent. of the weight of the bones they employed. This is ascribed to the moderate pressure of steam and reduced temperature, not exceeding 223° F., employed in the digesting process.-But though gelatine is insufficient of itself to support life, its almost universal use in some form of food attests its importance as an article of diet. It also finds numerous other uses, as for the clarifying of liquors, the manufacture of cements, as a chemical test for tannin, and in pharmacy for coating pills and forming pouches or capsules in which disagreeable medicines may be concealed and swallowed without disgust. It is also applied in the dressing of silks and other stuffs. It is made by the French into thin transparent sheets called papier glacé, which are used for copying drawings; and they also prepare from it artificial flowers richly colored to imitate the natural specimens, or presenting the appearance, in their glittering and semi-transparent substance, of flowers wet with dew or drenched with rain. Another application of gelatine is for taking casts or forming moulds of objects presenting complicated forms, for retaining which plaster is not sufficiently adhesive. A series of casts in imitation of ivory were produced in this substance in 1844 by M. Franchi, for which the prize of the London society of arts was awarded in 1846. He afterward obtained gelatine casts from moulds of the same substance, the lines being perfectly retained in their original sharpness. He also took casts in gelatine from flat models, which he applied to cylindrical bodies, thus saving much expense in the carving or construction of intricate models.-ISINGLASS is the best known form of edible gelatine. It is the dried air bag, sound, or swimming bladder of fishes, known to the ancients by the name of ichthyocolla or fish glue, and often alluded to by Dioscorides and Pliny. In different parts of the world this product is obtained from different fishes, and the isinglass of commerce is consequently of various qualities. The best is found among the varieties imported from Russia, particularly that which is brought to St. Petersburg from Astrakhan, and said to be obtained from the sturgeon called the beluga (aci

penser huso) of the Caspian sea and the rivers which flow into it, a species which attains a length of 25 feet. According to some authorities the sound is cut open, washed, and then exposed to the air, the inner silvery membrane outward. This membrane is then stripped off, placed in damp cloths and kneaded in the hands. Taken out and dried, it forms the leaf isinglass; folded like sheets of paper, it is the book isinglass; wound in the form of a horse shoe or lyre around 3 pegs, it forms the varieties known as long or short staple. According to Martin, the inner membrane is removed by beating and rubbing, and the thicker membrane is preserved. The isinglass called Samovey is brought from Taganrog. The leaf, book, and short staple of this locality are all of inferior quality. The varieties from the Ural and Siberia are better. The Brazilian isinglass, imported from Para and Maranham, is obtained in various forms distinguished as pipe, lump, and honeycomb. It appears to be the product of different kinds of fish, and to be prepared with little care. It is largely used in brewing establishments for fining the liquors; and though it is too impure for domestic uses, there is no doubt it is largely employed to adulterate the better articles. Its presence may be detected by the isinglass failing to dissolve readily and completely in hot water, and by its forming with this an opalescent and milky jelly in which may be observed the insoluble shreds common to the Brazilian article. Its smell also is often disagreeable, while that of the pure Russian isinglass is as inoffensive as the odor of sea weed, which it somewhat resembles. The isinglass of New York and New England is obtained from the sounds of the codfish (morrhua vulgaris) and of the common hake (phycis Americanus). They are macerated in water, and afterward rolled out in long strips of a few inches in width. The quality of the singlass is poor, its solution not readily obtained, and its color dark. It is used for the same purposes as the Brazilian. Other varieties are produced in other maritime countries. All isinglass has to undergo a process of refining before it is fit for making jellies, blanc-mange, &c. The best beluga leaf is imported in sheets of circular form, the most perfect of which are sometimes 2 feet in circumference, and weigh from 8 to 16 oz., in some instances reaching even 4 lbs. These are carefully picked over, and all the discolored parts are cut away and put aside for uses of less importance. The assorted leaf is then rolled out by machinery and passed through successive pairs of iron rollers, until it is converted into thin ribbons of uniform width. These are afterward by other machinery slit into fine shreds. Inferior sheet gelatine is sometimes introduced between two sheets of isinglass before rolling and thus incorporated with it. Isinglass, being a nearly pure gelatine, should have little or no color; and being commonly prepared without exposure to high degrees of heat, it should be tougher and more

elastic than the other forms of this substance. It should therefore make a most adhesive cement, and such is found to be the case. It is for this purpose swollen with cold water, and then placed in diluted alcohol. The vessel containing it is then put into cold water, which is to be heated to boiling. The jelly forms the cement, which may be kept from mouldiness and other change by the addition of a few drops of any essential oil. It is known as the "diamond cement," and is also the adhesive substance of court plaster. Gum ammoniac is sometimes introduced, as by the Turks, who use the cement for fastening precious stones, mending broken porcelain, glass, &c. Isinglass has also been used for the window lights of vessels, being covered with a transparent varnish which is not affected by moist air. Beside the methods already stated of detecting fraudulent mixtures with isinglass, the microscope may be used to render the different textures apparent. The ash of isinglass seldom exceeds per cent. and is of a red color; that of gelatine is white, and in quantity not less than 3 per cent.-GLUE, the most impure form of gelatine, is obtained from a great variety of refuse animal matters, as fragments of hides, scraps of leather which has not been tanned, skins from the furriers, hoofs, horns, tendons, intestines; in fact, almost any part of animals can be advantageously used in this manufacture. Bones are employed by the French as in the manufacture of edible gelatine; but when intended for glue, the process of dissolving out the earthy matters with hydrochloric acid is preferred to the steaming, the latter requiring a degree of heat which diminishes the adhesive quality of the glue. The animal matters are first subjected to a process of maceration in lime water for several weeks or months, by which their putrefaction is prevented, and they are rendered soft and more readily acted upon in the subsequent digesting operation. The lime water is frequently renewed in the vats. When taken out they are rinsed with water, and laid upon a sloping surface to drain and dry, where they are turned several times a day. By this exposure the quicklime is carbonated, and what remains attached is thus rendered harmless to the glue, from which it is afterward separated, together with the fatty matters, in the clarifying. The digestion is conducted in large boilers containing water, within which the animal matters are introduced in an openmouthed bag or net made of rope, the contact of which with the inner sides of the vessel is prevented by a light frame of iron which serves as a lining to the boiler. The contents are occasionally stirred and pressed down with poles, and added to as their bulk diminishes by boiling. When samples of the solution are found to gelatinize on cooling, the bag with its contents is drawn up out of the boiler by a large permanent windlass, which is fixed for the purpose at a considerable height above the boiler, and which is rolled by the machinery. By winding the bag as closely as possible to the shaft of the

windlass its contents are compressed, so that they rapidly drain and the liquid portions are made to fall back into the boiler. The more solid contents by a second boiling furnish more gelatine, which may be made into size, or the solution may be used to boil a fresh portion of animal matters. The final refuse is used for manure. The liquid in the boiler is evaporated to a proper consistency, and is then drawn off into a vessel called a settling-back, in which it can be kept liquefied by heat. In this the solid impurities settle, and the others are separated by clarifying the liquid with alum or other fining substances. This process completed, the glue is run out into coolers, which are wooden boxes about 6 feet long, a foot wide, and 6 inches deep. In these, if the room is cool, it solidifies sufficiently in the course of 12 to 18 hours to be cut with spades into cubical blocks. Each one of these is placed in a wooden box, made with open slits in the back to admit a wire, by which the blocks are cut into slices. These are placed upon nets stretched in wooden frames, and are then taken to the drying ground, where, protected by a temporary roof, the frames are piled up, so that the air can circulate through them. The whole require turning several times a day to expose all portions equally to the air. In this part of the manufacture the glue is particularly liable to injury from the weather. Too great dampness will make it mouldy; in too dry weather it will warp out of shape; in too hot weather it will soften and run upon the nets, or even flow through them; frost will cause it to crack in every direction by the freezing of the water within it; and a thunderstorm will prevent its hardening. The days of moderate weather of spring and autumn are the best for the drying operation. But this is not completed in the open air; the glue is removed to lofts and left for weeks or months; and as the slices become mouldy and soiled they are scrubbed with a brush and hot water and set up to drain. At last they are exposed to the high temperature of artificially heated rooms, by which the glue is properly hardened. The strongest glue is in thin sheets of a dark color, free from cloudy spots, and partially transparent. It swells in cold water without dissolving, and returns to its original size on drying. When used, it should be broken into small pieces and left for 24 hours in cold water; it may then be slowly melted by heat with frequent stirring. The jelly which forms on cooling may again be liquefied by heat without adding more water; but on frequent reheating it dries less readily, and partially loses its adhesive quality for which it is chiefly of value. Allusion has already been made to the provision furnished in the glue pot against its being exposed to a higher heat than that of boiling water. It should also be protected against a freezing temperature.-A glue that is not liable to be affected by dampness, and is a very tenacious cement, is made by immersing gelatine or glue, after it has been swollen in

cold water, in linseed oil and heating it; also by dissolving isinglass in skim milk instead of water. The quality of glue may be judged of by the quantity of water which the dry glue will absorb in 24 hours. The best glue kept immersed in water of the temperature of 60° F. has absorbed 12 times its weight. Other qualities, it is said, take up a proportionally less quantity. Beside its use for cementing wood and hard substances, glue is sometimes employed by the hatter in preparing the felt bodies of hats, and by the printer as an ingredient in the composition of inking rollers, to give them flexibility. -Several varieties of glue are employed in the arts, some of which may properly be noticed here, although they are not all preparations of gelatine. By treating glue with a small proportion of nitric acid it loses its property of gelatinizing when cold, though not that of causing substances to adhere together. With acetic acid a similar effect is produced. What is called liquid glue is made by slowly adding nitric acid to the ordinary preparation of glue in the proportion of 10 oz. of strong acid to 2 lbs. of dry glue dissolved in a quart of water. The product is a strong glue, which remains in a liquid state, and may be thus kept for years always ready for use. Marine glue is a preparation of caoutchouc dissolved in naphtha or oil of turpentine, with the addition of shell lac after the solution has by standing several days acquired the consistency of cream; 2 or 3 parts by weight of shell lac are used for one of the solution. The composition is then heated and run into plates, and when used it is heated to the temperature of about 250° F. It possesses extraordinary adhesive properties, and being quite insoluble in water, it has been recommended as a material for fastening together the timbers of ships; so securely are these held by its application that it is stated they will sooner break across the fibres than separate at the joint. GELDERLAND, or GUELDERLAND, a province of Holland, bounded N. W. by the Zuyder Zee, S. E. by the Prussian dominions, and on the other sides by the provinces of Overyssel, Utrecht, and North Brabant; area, 1,972 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 396,421. Its surface is more hilly than that of most of the Netherlands; its climate is mild, but its soil, except in the river valleys, is poor. The principal streams are the Meuse (separating it from North Brabant), Waal, Rhine, and Yssel, on the banks of which fruit, grain, hops, potatoes, and tobacco are cultivated with considerable success, while the more sterile districts have recently been planted with timber, or are used for cattle-raising. Brewing, distilling, and the manufacture of paper, linen, tiles, and leather, are important branches of industry, and there is also an extensive transit trade. There are iron mines in the canton of Zutphen. The herring fishery is actively prosecuted on the Zuyder Zee. For administrative purposes the province is divided into the districts of Arnhem, Nimeguen, Thiel, and Zutphen. Arnhem, the capital, Nimeguen, Zutphen, and Har

derwyk are the chief towns. Gelderland was made a county in 1070 by the emperor Henry IV., and a duchy in 1339 by Louis of Bavaria. It was governed by dukes of its own, who resided at its present capital, until 1528, when it passed into the hands of Charles V. It joined the league of Utrecht in 1576; in 1794 it was taken by the French, who held it 20 years, and in 1814 it became a part of the Netherlands. A portion of upper Gelderland (area about 400 sq. m.), including its capital Geldern (pop. 3,500), was added to Prussia by the peace of Utrecht (1713), and now forms part of the circle of Cleves in the Prussian district of Düsseldorf.

GELL, SIR WILLIAM, an English scholar and antiquary, born in Hopton, Derbyshire, in 1777, died in Naples, Feb. 4, 1836. He was graduated at Cambridge in 1798, was for a time a fellow of Emmanuel college, and was afterward sent on a secret mission to the Ionian islands. In 1814 he accompanied the princess of Wales abroad as one of her chamberlains, and was one of the witnesses at her trial, after she had become queen. He subsequently returned to Italy, where he sojourned till his death. Gell was a voluminous writer on classical antiquities. His principal works are: the "Topography of Troy and its Vicinity" (1804); "Itinerary of Greece, with a Commentary on Pausanias and Strabo" (1810); and “ Pompeiana, or Observations upon the Topography, Edifices, and Ornaments of Pompeii" (1817-19). Of the last, which has attained a greater popularity than any other of his works, a continuation in 2 vols. 8vo. was published in 1835.

GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT, a German poet and moralist, born in Hainichen, Saxony, July 4, 1715, died in Leipsic, Dec. 13, 1769. He was one of the early promoters of the great literary movement which produced Schiller and Goethe. His lectures upon poetry and morals delivered at Leipsic, at first as private instructor and afterward as professor of philosophy in the university, attracted crowded audiences. Goethe in his youth was one of his disciples, but judged his ethical system to be of an effeminate tendency. He published fables, stories, letters, sacred hymns and odes, and a romance entitled the "Swedish Countess," all admirable for their naïveté, and which were favorably received by the public, and have been often republished. Feeble health and attacks of hypochondria paralyzed his intellectual activity in the last years of his life.

GELLIUS, AULUS, a Roman grammarian, who flourished about the middle of the 2d century A. D., supposed to have been born in Rome. He studied rhetoric there, and philosophy at Athens. He was still a youth when he commenced, during the long winter evenings spent at a country house near Athens, a compilation of extracts from Greek and Roman authors, concerning languages, antiquity, philosophy, history, and literature, interspersed with original remarks. He continued it at Rome, where he held a judicial office. His work,