private life were assailed; he was charged with claiming a name which was denied him, with dishonesty in some of his numerous business transactions, and with unscrupulous ambition in his political course. Having challenged Armand Carrel, and killed that popular journalist in the duel, the clamor against him increased on all sides. He however was undaunted, and succeeded in securing the full possession of his name and a long disputed seat in the chamber of deputies, while he extended the circulation of the Presse so as to place it beyond rivalry. His character appeared in his motto: Une idée par jour. He supported the Molé ministry against the coalition in 1839, and the ministry of Guizot during most of its duration. In 1846 he was excluded from the chamber of deputies on the ground that he was not a Frenchman. In 1848 he refused to participate in the reform banquets which preceded the revolution. On Feb. 24, during the insurrection, he presented himself at the Tuileries and persuaded the king to an abdication in favor of his grandson, the count of Paris; but it was too late to save the dynasty. He vigorously supported the new order of things, tried to inspire the French people with confidence in it, and became for a while the most popular journalist in Paris. During a few weeks nearly 150,000 copies of the Presse were disposed of daily. His independent politics, however, were deemed dangerous by Gen. Cavaignac, who ordered his arrest after the insurrection of June, and kept him 11 days in strict confinement. On resuming the editorship of his journal, Girardin vehemently attacked the rule of the general, and greatly contributed to the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency, but soon became his opponent, gave his journal a more and more radical and socialistic turn, and after the coup d'état of Dec. 2, 1851, was ordered out of France. He afterward returned, but, unable to submit to the restrictions on journalism, sold his share in the Presse in 1856 for nearly a million of francs. Although now apparently unconcerned in politics, he is reported to be the secret adviser of Prince Napoleon. The catalogue of his political pamphlets would fill columns; most of them are of a decidedly democratic character. His contributions to the Presse from 1836 to 1856 were published in 1858 (12 vols. 8vo.), under the title of Questions de mon temps. After the death of his first wife, he married (Nov. 1856) Mlle. Mina de Tieffenbach, daughter of a former Viennese postmaster, who was raised to the rank of countess by the duke of Nassau. In 1859 he furnished an introductory preface to a work entitled Les bátards célèbres, by A. Charguéraud.

GIRARDIN, MARC, or, as he signs himself, ST. MARC, a French scholar and journalist, born in Paris in 1801. After completing a successful course of classical studies at the college of Henry IV., in 1823 he competed for a professorship in the university, and brilliantly won the title of agrégé, but, on account of his liberal opinions, was not appointed to a chair until 1827. In the

latter year the French academy awarded a prize to his Eloge de Bossuet, and he became one of the political contributors to the Journal des débats. In 1828 his Tableau de la littérature Française au 16° siècle was rewarded by another academical prize, which confirmed his reputation as an elegant, witty, and forcible writer and professor. In 1830 he travelled through northern Germany, and during a stay of 3 months in Berlin held friendly intercourse with Gans and Hegel. On his return he was appointed to succeed M. Guizot as professor of history in the faculty of letters, and named master of requests to the council of state. In 1833 he visited southern Germany as far as Vienna; and in 1834 published, under the title of Notices, the results of his two journeys beyond the Rhine. He was then called to the professorship of French poetry at the Sorbonne, and elected to the chamber of deputies. His report upon the organization of secondary instruction, presented in 1837, was highly valued; and he took rank among the most useful representatives. He entered at the same time the council of state and the council of public instruction; as a member of the latter board he greatly contributed to the extension and improvement of the system of historical teaching in the French colleges. In 1844 he was elected to the French academy. In 1848 he was designated as minister of public instruction, in the last cabinet attempted to be formed under the monarchy. Since that time he has held his position in the council of public instruction, and at the Sorbonne; he is also still a contributor to the Débats, and has lost nothing of his vivacity either as a journalist or as a lecturer. His principal works are his Cours de littérature dramatique, ou de l'usage des passions dans le drame, an improved reproduction of his lectures; his Essais de littérature et de morale; and his Souvenirs et voyages, comprising the notices upon Germany above alluded to.

GIRARDON, FRANÇOIS, a French sculptor, born in Troyes, March 16, 1628, died in 1715. He was furnished by Chancellor Seguier with the means of studying his art in Paris and Italy. He was patronized by Colbert, and received orders from the king for groups and statues in several of the royal palaces and gardens. He was appointed general inspector of sculpture in 1690 to succeed Lebrun. Some of his most celebrated works were destroyed during the revolution. The most important of those that remain are Richelieu's mausoleum in the chapel at the Sorbonne, and his groups of the "Bath of Apollo" and the "Rape of Proserpine" in the Versailles garden.

GIRDLE, a band or belt worn around the waist, usually to confine flowing garments. It was thus in use among the Greeks and Romans, and is still a part of ordinary oriental costume. The cestus or embroidered girdle of Venus and the bridal girdle (zona virginea) are celebrated in the classical poets. The ancient Britons used to put girdles marked with several mystical figures about the waist of women in labor,

which they imagined gave immediate and effectual relief. Such girdles were preserved with care till a comparatively late period in the highlands of Scotland. It was also an old English custom for an insolvent person to put off and surrender his girdle in open court, which arose from the practice of carrying the purse attached to it.

GIRGENTI, a province on the S. W. coast of Sicily, about 84 m. long and 22 broad; area, 1,200 sq. m.; pop. 250,000. Its surface is mountainous, with numerous valleys, which are exuberantly fertile, and yield corn, wine, and oil in great abundance. There is good pasturage, and the cheese made here is excellent. The chief mineral productions are bitumen, naphtha, sulphur, and salt. "The province is divided into 3 districts, Girgenti, Bivona, and Sciacca.-GIRGENTI, the capital of the province, is 58 m. S. S. E. of Palermo. (See AGRIGENTUM.)

GIRODET-TRIOSON, ANNE LOUIS (GIRODET DE ROUSSY), a French painter, born in Montarges, Feb. 5, 1767, died in Paris, Dec. 9, 1824. He was a pupil of David, and obtained the great prize, which enabled him to go to Rome in 1789. During a residence of 5 years in Italy he sent to Paris the "Sleeping Endymion" and "Hippocrates declining the Gifts of Artaxerxes." On his return to Paris in 1795, he painted portraits of Châteaubriand and Queen Hortense, and several large pictures, as "Danae," the "Seasons" for the king of Spain, "Fingal, Ossian, and their Descendants welcoming to their Aerial Palace the Manes of French Heroes," and in 1806 his most esteemed work, "A Scene of the Deluge." In 1808 he completed his "Funeral of Atala," in 1810 his "Revolt at Cairo," and in 1819 his "Pygmalion and Galatea." He was an accomplished classical scholar, and left 2 vols. of literary remains.

GIRONDE, a maritime department of France, formerly a part of the province of Guienne, bounded N. by Charente-Inférieure, E. by Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by Landes, and W. by the bay of Biscay; area, 3,761 sq. m.; pop. in 1856, 640,757. The surface is almost entirely level, the W. portion being a vast, sandy, arid flat, collectively called the Landes. The chief rivers are the Garonne and Dordogne, which unite to form the Gironde, the Isle, Dronne, Dropt, and Leyre. The climate is temperate, and, except in the Landes, generally healthy. The principal productions are wheat, rye, millet, maize, hemp, fruit, wine, cork, charcoal, turpentine, pitch, and timber. Wine is however the staple product, 55,000,000 gallons being made annually. The most renowned Bordeaux wines are produced in the Gironde. Building stone, salt, and chalk are the principal mineral products. The manufactures include, beside wine, calicoes, muslin, earthenware, paper, leather, glass, tobacco, brandy, beer, vinegar, salt, chemicals, and cordage. Ship-building is extensively carried on in Bordeaux. There are 4 lines of railway, connecting Bordeaux with Paris, Bayonne, &c. Gironde is di

vided into 6 arrondissements, Bordeaux, Blaye, Lesparre, Libourne, Bazas, and La Réole, which are subdivided into 48 cantons and 544 communes. Capital, Bordeaux.

GIRONDISTS (Fr. Girondins), a French political party, which played a conspicuous part in the legislative assembly and the convention. They derived their name from the deputies of the department of Gironde, whom they acknowledged as their leaders. Vergniaud, Gensonné, Guadet, Brissot (from whom they were sometimes styled Brissotins), Ducos, Boyer-Fonfrède, Louvet, Pétion, Valazé, Buzot, Barbaroux, Carra, Isnard, Lanjuinais, Condorcet, and Rabaut St. Etienne were the most renowned among their members. Imbued with republican principles, fond of justice and moderation, they enthusias tically promoted the proclamation of the republic (Sept. 1792), but engaged in a deadly struggle against the ultra revolutionary party, called the Montagnards; and although eloquence, talent, and virtue were mostly on their side, they succumbed to the violent assaults of their opponents after having been driven by the current to vote in part and reluctantly for the death of Louis XVI. The Montagnards charged them emphatically with plotting against the unity of the republic and aiming at a federal organization of the country. Twenty-two of them were arrested, June 2, 1793, incarcerated at the Conciergerie, and on Oct. 31 died on the scaffold. Mme. Roland, their inspirer, and her husband followed them soon after (Nov.), the former dying by the guillotine, the latter by his own hand. The other Girondist leaders escaped from Paris, and after vainly attempting to revolutionize several departments, almost all were either taken prisoners and beheaded, or died by their own hands. (See Lamartine, Histoire des Girondins, 8 vols., Paris, 1847.)

GISORS (anc. Gisorium, Gisortis, Gisortium, Casarotium), a town of France, department of Eure, in a fertile plain on the banks of the Epte, 33 m. E. S. E. of Rouen; pop. 3,597. It is surrounded by gardens and beautiful promenades formed upon the remains of its ancient ramparts. Its castle, most of which is still standing, was a work of great strength, and one of the chief fortresses of Normandy. It was built about the 11th century, but the donjon, an enclosed octagonal structure crowning a high artificial mound, was constructed in the 12th century by Henry II. of England. Under one of the towers is a dungeon, the walls of which are covered with carvings executed with a nail by some unknown prisoner. The parish church is an interesting edifice, presenting a singular combination of styles, and filled with grotesque sculptures. The choir is said to have been built by Blanche of Castile in the 18th century.

GITTITH, a word occurring 3 times in the titles of the Psalms (viii., lxxxi., lxxxiv.), and generally supposed to designate a musical instrument. It does not, however, occur in any list of instruments. Gesenius supposed that it was a general name for stringed instruments,

and Carpzov, Pfeiffer, and others, that the songs with this title were sung during the vintage. Redslob has published a treatise on the subject, De Voce na (Leipsic, 1831).

GIULIO ROMANO, an Italian painter, whose family name was PIPPI, born in Rome in 1492, died in Mantua in 1546. He was the most distinguished pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted in many of his paintings, and who made him his chief heir and appointed him to complete his unfinished works. After the death of his master, Leo X. and Clement VII. employed him, together with Gian Penni, to finish the history of Constantine in the Vatican, and he executed several works for the public edifices at Rome, was also employed there as architect, and painted his celebrated picture of the "Stoning of St. Stephen" for the church of San Stefano at Genoa. He was afterward invited to Mantua, and engaged both as architect and painter on the Palazzo del Te. The "Defeat of the Titans," in one of the halls of the palace, is one of the best examples of his energetic and often extravagant style. He worked with his pupils on many other edifices at Mantua, and just before his death was appointed to succeed Sansovino as the architect of St. Peter's. GIURGEWO, a town and river port of Wallachia, on the left bank of the Danube, opposite Rustchuk, and 43 m. S. S. W. of Bucharest; pop. 10,000. Its citadel, the only one of its fortifications remaining, stands on an island in the Danube called Slobotzin, and is connected with the town by a bridge. It is the most important port on the Wallachian bank of the Danube, and carries on a considerable trade with Germany and Hungary. The average annual value of its imports from these countries amounts to £275,000. It was several times captured and recaptured by the Russians and Turks in their various wars, and also in 1853 and 1854. It was garrisoned in 1855 by Turkish and Austrian troops.

GIZZARD. See COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, vol. v. p. 566.

GLACIER (Fr. glace, ice), a vast body of ice, filling some alpine valley, down which it slowly moves the outlet of the snows which accumulate in the elevated portions of the mountain group. Glaciers may be found in all countries where there are extensive tracts of land lying above the level of the snow line of the region. In such localities the snows are ever accumulating, and the temperature not rising sufficiently for any considerable proportion to be melted and flow down, they fill the spaces between the summits, and form what in Switzerland are called mers de glace, seas of ice. By the pressure exerted by these vast collections the yielding material is forced through whatever opening is presented for its passage, and the great valleys leading to the base of the mountains are packed full of the solid ice, which results from the snow being solidified by pressure, or by its own melting and freezing again. This, solid as it appears, cannot resist the

accumulative force behind it, but is steadily though imperceptibly urged onward, conforming to all the irregularities of its channel, split sometimes by immovable ledges of rock, which stand like islands in its course, yet closing again below them with no trace of the fissure. These bodies of ice extend down the valleys till they reach a region where the temperature is sufficiently elevated to melt away the supplies as they arrive. Though these have gradually diminished toward the lower extremity of the glacier, so that this has flattened away somewhat like a wedge, and has also become narrower, the termination is frequently abrupt and even inaccessible. It presents an apparently stationary wall of ice, which, though seen to be constantly wasting, may yet by observations continued several days be found steadily advancing still further from the mountain. During the summer, currents of water formed from superficial thaws flow over its surface, at least in the daytime, and fall in cascades into the chasms, which are met with in great numbers extending across the glacier. They continue their course, hollowing out through the lower layers of the ice arched channels, which at the lower end appear like dark caverns extending far up into the icy mass. In high arctic latitudes, where the line of perpetual snow comes down to the sea level, the phenomena of glaciers are displayed upon the grandest scale. Thus they were seen in lat. 79°-80° by Dr. Kane in 1855, spreading over the western coast of Greenland, and sloping so gently toward the water that the effect of an inclined plane was perceived only by looking far into the interior toward the east. In this long range the angle of the slope was from 7° to 15°. Yet the whole icy crust of this portion of the continent was always advancing and stretching itself out into the western bay, where masses of it were constantly detached and floated off as icebergs. From this glacier to the southern extremity of Greenland, a distance exceeding 1,200 miles, Dr. Kane imagines a deep unbroken sea of ice may extend along the central portions nearly the whole length of the continent-a sea "that gathers perennial increase from the water-shed of vast snow-covered mountains and all the precipitations of the atmosphere upon its own surface. Imagine this, moving onward like a great glacial river, seeking outlets at every fiord and valley, rolling icy cataracts into the Atlantic and Greenland seas, and having at last reached the northern limit of the land that has borne it up, pouring out a mighty frozen torrent into unknown arctic space. It is thus, and only thus, that we must form a just conception of a phenomenon like this great glacier. I had looked in my own mind for such an appearance, should I ever be fortunate enough to reach the northern coast of Greenland; but, now that it was before me, I could hardly realize it. I had recognized, in my quiet library at home, the beautiful analogies which Forbes and Struder have developed between the glacier and

the river; but I could not comprehend at first this complete substitution of ice for water. It was slowly that the conviction dawned on me, that I was looking upon the counterpart of the great river system of arctic Asia and America. Yet here were no water feeders from the south. Every particle of moisture had its origin within the polar circle, and had been converted into ice. There were no vast alluvions, no forest or animal traces borne down by liquid torrents. Here was a plastic, moving, semi-solid mass, obliterating life, swallowing rocks and islands, and ploughing its way with irresistible march through the crust of an investing sea." ("Arctic Explorations," vol. i. p. 226.) -The phenomenon of glaciers reaching the sea and becoming icebergs was noticed by Darwin on the western coast of South America, even so near the equator as lat. 46° 40′ S., in the gulf of Penas, Chili. In northern Europe it has been observed in Norway, in lat. 67° N. Upon the Himalaya mountains the glaciers appear from the accounts of modern travellers to be exhibited in masses of stupendous height, as well as of vast extent. In the "Himalayan Journals" of Dr. Joseph Hooker, those of the eastern portion of the range, in the territories of Sikkim and Nepaul, are described in detail, and mention is made of one which presents a vertical height of 14,000 feet, the source of which is the great Kinchinjunga, whose summit reaches the elevation of 28,178 feet above the sea. Other gigantic glaciers in the central Himalaya are described by Dr. Thomas Thomson ("Western Himalaya and Tibet"), and by Col. Madden and Capt. Richard Strachey, in the "Asiatic Researches," vol. xiv. Iceland, Spitzbergen, the Caucasus, and Altai have their glaciers, which have been described by travellers; but no regions have afforded such convenient opportunities for studying them in detail as the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, Piedmont, and the Tyrol. Here, in the heart of central Europe, they are found covering in detached portions an aggregate area computed at about 1,484 sq. m. Between Mont Blanc and the borders of the Tyrol there are reckoned as many as 400, of which the greater number are between 10 and 20 miles in length, and from 1 to 24 miles in breadth. Their vertical thickness is in many places rated at 600 feet; their range is from above the snow line, which is from 7,500 to 8,000 feet above the sea, down to the level of 3,000 to 3,500 feet, thus comprising a vertical descent of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Lateral ravines have their glaciers, which join as branches the ice-currents of the great valleys. This interesting region has long attracted the attention of scientific observers. It was studied by De Saussure in the latter portion of the last century, and his views were published in his Voyages dans les Alpes. De Charpentier is distinguished among later explorers as the able advocate of the theory explaining the motion of the glaciers, afterward sustained by Agassiz in his great work, Études sur les glaciers; and

Prof. James D. Forbes of Edinburgh published in 1843 his "Travels in the Alps," &c., with observations on the phenomena of glaciers made in visits to them repeated in 10 different summers, in which he crossed the principal chain 27 times by 23 different passes. To these might be added the names of many other distinguished naturalists, who have aided not only to develop the true nature of glaciers, but also to apply the phenomena they exhibit to the explanation of past changes upon the earth's surface.-Before presenting some of the results of these investigations, there are other features of interest about glaciers, beside those already pointed out, which should receive attention. As they lie spread over the broad valleys, they appear as fixed and immovable as the rocky cliffs at their sides. The snow which covers them during the winter disappears from their face in the warm days of summer, and thousands of streams are then produced which waste their material; but with the return of winter the covering of snow is renewed, and no change may be perceived in the great mass except such as can be referred to these superficial causes. By comparative observations only, made at different times, is it perceived that the great mass itself moves; and yet there are several circumstances that render this conclusion inevitable to the intelligent observer. The constant renewal of the waste at the lower extremity, already referred to, is one evidence of this. Objects upon the surface, too, are found to be continually moving down, even when their position upon the ice itself is not changed. From the high precipices at the sides masses of rock and stone fall along the edges of the glacier, but it is obvious that they do not remain there in an immovable talus; for where one glacier opens into another the piles of stones next the fork do not terminate as they join at this point, but are continued in a long mound of the same varieties of stone far down the glacier; and as other branches come in, each adds its new mound, till sometimes 4 or even 6 parallel ridges are thus produced. These may come in contact with one another below, and thus be reduced in number, and even be blended with the piles at the edges. In some form, however, the mounds continue to the foot of the glacier; and there ridges of bowlder-shaped stones and gravel are seen, which lie in front of the glacier, and are sometimes repeated in nearly parallel lines like the little ridges of sand and drift material along a sea-beach, each one of which marks the limit of some previous high tide. So these great ridges of sand and stones, called moraines or borders, mark the limits reached by the foot of the glacier at former times; and as the tide marks are all removed when a high-course tide again sweeps far up the beach, so the ridges at certain periods are observed to move on before the advancing glacier, and mix together in a new and larger moraine at a greater distance from the mountains. It is in these periods that the habitable valleys of Switzerland are some

times invaded by the terrible ice wall. Irresistibly and imperceptibly it is found advancing upon the farms and cottages. The warm summer weather is obviously hastening its dissolution, yet its dimensions do not sensibly diminish. The green forests slowly disappear before it; and the growing wheat almost feels its icy touch, before the soil is lifted by its ruthless ploughshare. When, after such an advance, the glacier recedes to its former bounds, the surface it covered is found to be changed into a dismal waste of loose stones.The gathering and distribution of these materials by action of glaciers have been subjects of special interest, from the resemblance in most of the phenomena exhibited to those connected with the distribution of the geological formation known as the drift. The loose rocks are worn into the rounded forms of bowlders, and are similarly striated and grooved upon their surface, and sometimes polished. The rocks upon and against which the glaciers have pressed are found, wherever exposed to view, to be ground smooth and deeply marked with lines corresponding in direction with the course of the glacier at the spot. The surface of Greenland, could it be seen, would unquestionably display these features upon a scale more commensurate with that presented by the drift formation. It is upon these resemblances, and others connected with minor details of the two classes of phenomena, that the glacial theory of Venetz and De Charpentier, so fully elaborated by Agassiz, is based, accounting for the distribution of geological formations like the drift. The transporting power of glaciers was recognized by Prof. Playfair of Edinburgh as far back as the year 1816, and the occurrence of the enormous bowlders on the Jura was attributed by him to glaciers, the track of which he supposed lay at one time across the valley of Switzerland and the lake of Geneva, which now separate the Jura from the opposite summits of Mont Blanc. It is on these summits, at the distance of from 70 to 80 miles, that are found the ledges of granite and other rocks, which are recognized as identical with the great bowlders scattered over the surface of the Jura limestone. The quantity of stony material, and the enormous size of the masses of rock carried along by glaciers, is little appreciated, even by many who have seen the loads apparently quietly resting on their surface. Sometimes the ice is almost concealed by the accumulated piles of stone which cover it. These do not sink into the ice, except as they occasionally fall into the chasms, and even then they are sometimes brought again to the surface by the action of the forces which keep most of them there. As the rock protects the ice beneath it from the melting action of the sun, which has its effect around, the rock is thus gradually lifted upon a pedestal of ice, at the same time that the whole is slowly moving down to a lower level. When the pedestal at last gives way, the rock slips down and the process is repeated. When once

in the ice, the superficial melting may bring it again to the surface. The size of the fragments is often immense. Prof. Forbes saw one in the valley which must have been brought down by the glacier, the dimensions of which were nearly 100 feet in length and from 40 to 50 in height; and at the foot of the glacier of Swartzburg in the valley of Saas was another estimated to contain 244,000 cubic feet, requiring an average diameter of nearly 62 feet.-The rate of progress of glaciers, dependent upon various conditions, is no more uniform than that of rivers. It can in no case be correctly estimated except by observations extending over many years. On the glacier of Aar, M. Hugi erected a hut in 1827 at the foot of a fixed and well known rock. In 1836 the hut was 2,200 feet from the rock, and in 1840 this distance had doubled. In the first period its progess had been 250 feet per annum, and in the second 550. Prof. Forbes in 1842 found the remains of a ladder, which, it is believed, was the one left by De Saussure in 1788 at a point 16,500 feet further up the glacier. If so, its yearly progress had been at the rate of 375 feet. This movement extends through valleys in which the surface of the glacier appears to lie almost upon a dead level. It is made manifest day by day by a row of stakes set up in a straight line across the glacier, and ranging with fixed points on the land at the sides. These are after a time observed to lie upon a semi-circular line, the stakes near the centre moving faster than those near the margin. The importance of correctly estimating the rate of movement at short intervals and in different parts of a glacier, in order to determine the nature of the motion, appears to have been first appreciated by Agassiz in 1841, and by Prof. Forbes, who was engaged about the same time in his explorations. Agassiz discovered that the central portion moved faster than the marginal, and he was the first to correct the erroneous views into which he had been led with others on this point, from the fact of the great cracks generally lying in curved lines with the convexity directed up the course of the glacier. (Système glaciaire, by Agassiz, Guyot, and Desor, p. 462.) Prof. Forbes, by careful instrumental observations made in 1842, detected the rate of movement in periods of 24 hours, and was able even to notice that which took place in the short space of an hour and a half. He proved the faster rate of motion of the central portions, and also that the portions of the glacier near the surface moved faster than those near the bottom. The rate of motion he found was greatest on the slopes of greatest descent; in warm weather more rapid than in cold; yet always continuous, and not exhibited in the manner of jerks. Such facts are opposed to the theory of De Saussure, that the glaciers move by slipping along upon their bed, the motion being made more easy by the buoyant property of the water flowing beneath them, and the propelling force being that of gravitation. More