the prize of the Copenhagen musical union, and secured to him a royal stipend to travel and study his art abroad. He passed several years in Germany and in Italy, and greatly increased his reputation by a symphony in C minor. The favor with which this work was received in Leipsic induced him to visit that city, where in 1844 he was appointed to succeed Mendelssohn in the direction of the Gewandhaus concerts. In 1850, having received the appointment of royal chapel master to the king of Denmark, he returned to Copenhagen, where he has since resided. Among his published works are 4 symphonies, a number of overtures, sonatas, quintettes, and romances, Comala, a lyrical drama, and the Nibelungen, an opera. Some of his symphonies have been performed with effect in England and the United States, and the first, from its romantic, dreamy tone, is a favorite in the concert room.

GADFLY, a dipterous insect, belonging to the genus tabanus (Linn.), with 3-jointed antennæ and wide-spreading wings. The gadflies are among the most bloodthirsty and tormenting of insects; they attack not only man, but cattle, horses, camels, and various ruminating animals. The most common species in the United States is the T. atratus (Fabr.), of a black color, with a whitish bloom on the back, like that of a plum; the eyes are very large, almost meeting at the top of the head, and of a shining purplish or bronze black color, with a jet black band across the middle; it is about an inch long, with an expanse of wings of nearly 2 inches. The orange-belted gadfly (T. cinctus, Fabr.) is smaller and less common, black, with the first 3 abdominal rings orange-colored. A smaller and very common species is the T. lineola (Fabr.), which has a whitish line along the top of the hind body. There are many other American species, described and undescribed. There are about 40 European species, for a knowledge of whose habits and metamorphoses we are principally indebted to De Geer. The species which so torments cattle is the T. bovinus (Linn.), about an inch long; the thorax and abdomen are dark brown, the former with yellowish hair, and the latter with a reddish yellow cross band on the hinder edge of the segments, and bright yellow triangular spots; abdomen yellowish gray, with black triangular spots; thighs dark brown, and tibiæ bright yellow. These insects appear about the end of June, and continue their attacks through summer; the proboscis, though not very long, is armed with 6 very sharp needles, by which they can pierce the thickest hide. It is said that they will not touch a horse whose skin has been thoroughly washed with a strong decoction of walnut leaves. Camels are worried by a species of tabanus; and the moose is so tormented by them that he immerses himself in water to escape their attacks, leaving out only the tip of the nose for purposes of respiration. In the allied genus chrysops (Meigen), or golden-eyed gadflies, may be mentioned the C. cacu

tiens (Meig.), about of an inch long, common in Europe in meadows and pasture lands, stinging both men and horses very severely; the yellowish brown thorax is marked with 8 long black stripes; wings white with blackish brown spots; abdomen yellowish. American species are C. ferrugatus (Fabr.), of a black color, and C. vittatus (Wied.), striped black and yellow; they are found in woods and thickets in July and August. The genus hæmatopota (Meig.) contains the troublesome gadfly called cleg in Scotland; this, the H. pluvialis (Meig.), is about the size of the common house fly; the large eyes are greenish, with 4 undulating brown bands running through each of them; the body is gray, with brownish cross stripes; the wings gray, spotted with brown. It attacks man, cattle, and especially horses, in sultry weather just before rain; the wounds are painful at the time, but are not followed by any lasting burning or itching.-The name of gadfly is also given to several species of astrus, especially to that one which deposits its eggs about the knees and sides of the horse, and which, conveyed into this animal's stomach, constitute the disease known as bots. (See Bors.)

GADSDEN, a N. co. of Fla., bordering on Georgia, bounded E. by the Ocklokonee river, and W. by the Appalachicola; area, about 1,260 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 8,783, of whom 4,879 were slaves. It has an uneven surface and a fertile soil, suitable for tobacco, cotton, sugar, &c. The productions in 1850 were 776,177 lbs. of tobacco, 292,850 bushels of Indian corn, 143,000 of sweet potatoes, 65,403 gallons of molasses, 5,609 bales of cotton, and 108,370 lbs. of rice. The production of tobacco and molasses was greater than that of any other county in the state, and that of Indian corn exceeded all but Leon. There were 20 churches and 300 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Quincy.

GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER, an American statesman of the revolutionary period, born in Charleston, S. C., in 1724, died in the same city, Aug. 28, 1805. He was sent to England to be educated, and studied under the care of his relatives, returning to Charleston in his 17th year. He was soon after apprenticed to a merchant in Philadelphia, with whom he remained till his 21st year. After a second visit to England, he engaged in mercantile business in Charleston. His father had possessed a large estate in Charleston, but had lost it in play with Admiral Anson, on his visit to that city in 1733. The success of Christopher in commerce enabled him to recover by purchase all this property. He was one of the boldest in denouncing British oppression from the time of the stamp act. Near his residence was a wide-spreading oak, under which the patriots were wont to assemble in 1765 and 1766 to discuss the political questions of the day. The oak was therefore called the "liberty tree," and beneath it, amid the rejoicings which followed the repeal of the stamp act in 1766,

Gadsden, who was in correspondence with Samuel Adams, warned his friends not to be lulled into a dangerous inactivity. It is claimed that more than 2 years before he had first spoken of American independence. As the revolution advanced, he was one of the most resolute patriot leaders in both civil and military affairs. He was a delegate to the stamp act congress, which assembled in New York in 1765; a delegate to the first continental congress in 1774, in which he urged an immediate attack upon Gen. Gage at Boston; became senior colonel (and afterward brigadier) of 3 South Carolina regiments in 1775; was actively engaged at the siege of Charleston in 1776; was one of the framers of the constitution of South Carolina, adopted in 1778; resigned his military commission in 1779; and, as lieutenant-governor of the state, signed the capitulation when Charleston was taken by Sir Henry Clinton in 1780. Shortly after, in open violation of the terms of capitulation, he was suddenly arrested with 77 other influential public men, hurried on board a prison ship, and conveyed to St. Augustine. He alone of the prisoners refused to enter into any engagements whatever to secure a degree of freedom on parole, and was therefore incarcerated for 42 weeks in the dungeon of the castle of St. Augustine. Being exchanged, he was sent to Philadelphia, and after his return to Charleston, as member of the state legislature, notwithstanding the violence he had suffered, he opposed the confiscation of the property of loyalists. He was elected governor of the state in 1782, but declined the honor, preferring to retire to private life.

GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER EDWARDS, D.D., grandson of the preceding, third bishop of the Protestant Episcopal church in South Carolina, born in Charleston, S. C., Nov. 25, 1785, died in the same city, June 24, 1852. He was graduated in 1804 at Yale college, where he began a life-long friendship with J. C. Calhoun, was ordained deacon in 1807, and after having charge for 2 years of the parish of St. John's, Berkley, was in 1810 admitted to the priestly office, and elected assistant minister of St. Philip's church, Charleston, with which he was connected during the remainder of his life. It is the oldest church in the diocese, and he became its rector on the death of the Rev. J. D. Simons, in 1814. He was influential in 1810 in establishing the Protestant Episcopal society for the advancement of Christianity in South Carolina, of which he was from the first a trustee, and from 1840 ex officio president. On the death of Bishop Bowen, in 1839, there were two parties in the diocese, each of which had its candidate for his successor. Dr. Gadsden was elected on the first ballot by a small majority of the clergy and a large one of the laity. After the adjournment of the convention, he called the clergy around the chancel, and proposed the nomination of some third man upon whom they could all unite, and in whose favor he would most gladly decline the office. The tone

and import of the address "had a most conciliatory effect, and resulted in a general acquiescence in his election. He was consecrated bishop at Trinity church, Boston, June 21, 1840, and on Sept. 9 following held his first confirmation in St. Michael's church, Charleston, when 126 persons, more than 20 of whoin were colored, became subjects of that rite. On his visitations he was particularly attentive to the colored people, often collecting them for purposes of devotion and instruction, and thus setting an example which was followed with happy effects by his presbyters and deacons. He published several sermons and charges to his clergy, an Essay on the Life of Bishop Dehon" (1833), and many contributions in the "Gospel Messenger," of which he was editor.

GADSDEN, JAMES, an American statesman, brother of the preceding, born in Charleston, S. C., May 15, 1788, died there, Dec. 26, 1858. He was graduated at Yale college, and was engaged in commerce till upon the declaration of the war of 1812 he solicited a commission in the army. Appointed a lieutenant in the engineer corps, he was variously engaged in Canada and New York, and after the peace was selected as aide-de-camp of Gen. Jackson in the expedition to examine and report upon the military defences of the gulf of Mexico and the S. W. frontier. In the following year he was appointed to review the examinations in cooperation with Gen. Bernard, and published in a separate report conclusions different from those of his associate. In 1818 he accompanied Gen. Jackson in the Seminole campaign, and took part in the capture of St. Mark's, where Arbuthnot was made prisoner; and when Ambrister, the confederate of Arbuthnot, was subsequently arrested at Suwannee, Gadsden at the head of a detachment captured a schooner in the service of the enemy, on board of which was found the correspondence that led to the condemnation and execution of these two leaders of the Indians. he planned the approaches and established the batteries which forced the governor, Massot, to surrender at discretion. At the close of the Indian war he was made a captain, and detailed to take charge of the works to be constructed for the defence of the frontier on the gulf. was engaged in the fortification of Mobile bay, when he was called to the military staff of Gen. Jackson, as inspector-general of the southern division, with the rank of colonel. He accompanied Jackson to Pensacola when the latter took possession of Florida as governor, and was active in reconciling a dispute between him and the Spanish governor concerning the interpretation of the treaty between the two countries. Upon the reduction of the army in 1822, Col. Gadsden was retained, and for several months was employed as adjutant-general with Mr. Calhoun, who was reorganizing the war department, but for political reasons his name was rejected by the senate. He then became a planter in the wilds of Florida, where

At Pensacola

He

under a commission from President Monroe he effected a treaty for the removal of the Seminoles from middle to southern Florida, and was the first white man who crossed Florida through jungles and morasses from the Atlantic to the gulf. He resumed agricultural pursuits near Tallahassee, but soon became president of the South Carolina railroad, was occupied for several years with commercial enterprises, and afterward engaged in the new culture of rice by tidal irrigation near Charleston. He was recalled to public life by President Pierce, who conferred on him the mission to Mexico, an office which the issues that had grown out of the execution of the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo made one of great difficulty. Disputes had arisen concerning the boundary line between Chihuahua and New Mexico, involving the possession of the Mesilla valley, of which, though claimed by the United States, the Mexicans took armed possession. The 11th article of the treaty, imposing upon the United States the obligation to restrain the Indian marauders on the Mexican frontier, had been neglected, and the reclamations in consequence amounted to between $15,000,000 and $30,000,000. Gen. Gadsden concluded a convention, Dec. 30, 1853, by which a new boundary was agreed upon, and by which were secured all the objects which had been erroneously supposed to be attained by the original treaty, the 11th article being abrogated, and a commission provided for the adjustment of claims. For the territory now called Arizona, the United States was to allow Mexico $10,000,000. Gen. Gadsden was the bearer of his own despatches to the government, and the treaty was finally confirmed by the senate, but with such modifications as made it necessary for the envoy to return to Mexico and renew the negotiation. He had reconciled Santa Anna to the modifications when a revolution drove the dictator from the country, and Gen. Gadsden engaged in negotiations with the new administration when he was superseded, and retired to private life and the pursuits of agriculture, which occupied him till his death. GADWALL, a fresh water or river duck of the sub-family anatina, and the genus charlelas mus (Gray). In this genus the bill is as long as the head, the lamellæ distinctly visible below its lower edge, and its color black; the head and neck brownish white, each feather spotted with dusky, and the top of the head generally with a reddish tinge; lower neck, breast, back, and sides banded with narrow bars of black and white; rump and tail coverts black; greater wing coverts velvet black, middle chestnut, and speculum white with a black border. From its general color it is often called the gray duck. The length is about 22 inches, the extent of wings 35, and the weight about 14 lbs. The only species described is the C. streperus (Gray), which is generally considered the same in America and Europe; our species presents some slight differences in measurements and coloration, and it may be that a careful exami

nation would prove the two birds different species, as the general rule, except in a few arctic species, would lead us to believe. It occurs from the fur countries to Texas, in both of which localities it breeds; it is most common in the interior, especially on the larger rivers; it arrives with the widgeon in the vicinity of New Orleans in the autumn, in small flocks, passing the winter in the large lakes near the gulf of Mexico, feeding on small fish, insects, and aquatic grasses; the flesh is considered excellent eating. The gadwall is a good diver and swimmer, and walks uncommonly well; it is a rapid flier, with a whistling noise of the wings; in its excursions on land it nibbles the tender grass, and will eat acorns, seeds, and grain. Experiment has proved that this species is capable of domestication, the peculiarity of the plumage being retained in this condition.

GAEL, or GAIL (Gaelic, Gadhel or Gaoidheal), the plural of Gal or Cal (akin to Latin celo, to hide, as the people dwelt or were hidden in forests; or more probably signifying wanderer), the name of the northern and western branch of the great Celtic family of nations, whose other branch is formed by the Kymri or Cymri. The Gael inhabit the Scotch highlands and Ireland, and distinguish themselves as Gael Albinach, or Gael of Albion, and Gael Erinnach, Gael of Erin (from ar or iar, west, and ie, island; Romanized into Iuerna and Hibernia). Both these divisions are called Erse, the former by the Scotch lowlanders, who derive them from Ireland. The descendants of the Kymri dwelling in Wales are called Gwyddel by the Gael, while those in France are named Breiziz (Britons; see BRETON LANGUAGE), and those of Cornwall (corn, cairn, rock, and gal) ceased in the 18th century to speak their peculiar dialect. Gadhelic or Gaoidhilg is the epithet especially appropriated to the Irish and to their tongue, and Gaelic especially denotes both the highland Scotch and their language. (See ERSE.) Caledonia is composed of Cal and dun or don, mountain; Gaeldoch of Gael and doch, land; both being names of Scotland; but Gaolldoch or strangers' land is the distinctive name of that part of Scotland which is inhabited by non-Celtic people.-It was believed at one time, even by Gibbon, that the Irish were of Punic origin; but Dr. Prichard and others have proved that they, as well as all other Celts, are of the Indo-European family, as having arrived before the Teutons from the regions on the Oxus and from Media, and having penetrated through the Allophyllic races (see FINNS) along the southern shores of the Baltic sea into the west of Europe at a time of which we have no historic data. Traces of this migration, although altered, are found everywhere in the word Wal (Gal), as in Wales, Wallon, Wallis (Valais) in Switzerland, Walsch-land (the German name of Italy), Wallachia (the country of the Rumani), in walnut (this tree having been imported from Italy, the northern part of which was Gallia Cisalpina), &c. A. B. Marx has written an interesting treatise on Gaelic

music (in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopädie, 1850), showing the influence of the Celts in the countries above mentioned, and in Spain, Galatia in Asia, and even in Africa, as the music of the Moors was found by Lemprier (1789) to resemble the Celtic modes. See also Skene, the "Highlands of Scotland" (London, 1837); Dieffenbach, Celtica (Stuttgart, 1839-'42); Wilson, the "Archæologic or Prehistoric Annals of Scotland" (Edinburgh, 1851).

GAETA (anc. Caieta), a fortified city of the kingdom of Naples, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, on the gulf of Gaëta, an arm of the Mediterranean, 76 m. S. E. of Rome; pop. of the city proper, about 3,000, but including its suburbs, 14,800. It is neatly though irregularly built. The principal public edifices are the citadel, one of the strongest fortresses in Italy, and the key of the kingdom of Naples; the cathedral, which is a handsome symmetrical structure, with a fine tower; and the royal palace, which is a favorite summer residence of the Neapolitan kings. Gaëta gives title to an archbishop; and thither Pope Pius IX. fled when the republican party obtained supremacy in Rome in 1848.

GÆTULIA, an ancient country of Africa, situated S. of Mauritania and Numidia, bounded E. by hills separating it from the country of the Garamantes, W. by the Atlantic ocean, and S., according to Pliny, by the river Niger. Nearly all of this region was included in the Sahara or great desert, the W. oases of which, and perhaps some portions of the fertile belt on its N. margin and of the basin of the Niger, were inhabited by the Gætuli. They were one of the two great aboriginal races of N. W. Africa, the other being the Libyans, and had formerly dwelt on the coast of the Mediterranean, but were expelled by the Mauritanians and Numidians, and driven S. of Mt. Atlas. They were a nomadic race, of warlike disposition and savage manners, living on milk and flesh, clothed with skins, and without regular government. They are by some supposed to have been the ancestors of the Berbers, and of Asiatic origin. They were divided into several tribes, one of which, the Melanogætuli, were nearly black from intermingling with the Nigrita on the S. In the Jugurthine war they served as cavalry against the Romans, but afterward a body of them joined the army of Marius; and from this period to the close of the civil wars we frequently find them serving as auxiliaries with the legions. They were sometimes however troublesome to the Romans, and in the reign of Augustus an army under the command of Cornelius Cossus Lentulus had to be sent against them. The barbarians were vanquished, and the general obtained a triumph and the surname of Gætulicus. GAGE, THOMAS, the last royal governor of Massachusetts, born in England, died there in April, 1787. He was an active officer during the 7 years' war, was appointed governor of Montreal in 1760, and succeeded Gen. Amherst in 1763 in the chief command of the British

forces in America. Being appointed to supersede Hutchinson as governor of Massachusetts, he arrived in Boston, May 17, 1774, while the people of that colony were preparing to resist the port act framed for their chastisement. But he was qualified neither to reconcile nor subdue, and, though personally esteemed, inspired the public with neither confidence nor fear. He was instructed to seize and punish Samuel Adams, Hancock, and Warren, but durst not even attempt their arrest. As precautionary measures he seized the powder in the public magazine in Charlestown (Sept. 1), and began to fortify Boston, out of which city his power was at an end. He planned the expedition to Concord which resulted in the first battle of the revolution (April 19, 1775), and on June 12 established martial law throughout Massachusetts, and proscribed Samuel Adams and John Hancock by name, offering pardon to all other rebels who would return to their allegiance. After the battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775) Gage was superseded by Gen. Howe, and sailed for England on the following Oct. 10.

GAGERN, HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, baron von, a German statesman, born in Baireuth, Aug. 20, 1799. He entered the army of the duke of Nassau in 1815, and fought at the battle of Waterloo as sub-lieutenant. He afterward studied law, and entered the public service of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. As a writer and a member of the legislature he opposed the views of the government, and was obliged to resign his office in 1833, after which he devoted himself exclusively to the diffusion of political liberalism. Being considered the leader of the opposition, he was called upon to form a ministry when the popular outbreak of 1848 compelled the government to adopt a liberal policy. He was elected a member of the national German parliament at Frankfort-onthe-Main, and acted as its president until Dec. 15, when he entered the cabinet of the vicar of the empire (Reichsverweser), the Austrian archduke John, as prime minister. In that position he avowedly endeavored to reconstruct Germany upon the basis of an exclusion of Austria. His administration lasted only 3 months. He afterward applied all his influence to the promotion of a plan of a limited German union under the leadership of Prussia. He was justly considered the soul of that party which from a convention held at Gotha in 1849 obtained the name of Gothaer (men of Gotha), a moderately liberal party, whose political ideal was the British constitution. After having taken part as a volunteer in the Holstein war against Denmark, Gagern went to Heidelberg, and has since lived there in retirement.

GAINES, EDMUND PENDLETON, an American general, born in Culpepper co., Va., March 20, 1777, died in New Orleans, June 6, 1849. He entered the U. S. army as ensign in 1799, was for many years actively employed in frontier duty, and was instrumental in procuring the arrest of Aaron Burr. About 1811 he resigned

his commission, intending to fit himself for the practice of the law; but at the commencement of the war of 1812 he returned to the army, with which he remained connected until his death. At the battle of Chrystler's field, fought Nov. 11, 1813, he rendered important services by covering the retreat of the American forces with his regiment, the 25th, and he subsequently commanded at Fort Erie when the night assault by the British troops under Gen. Drummond was repulsed. For his conduct during the siege of this place, where he was severely wounded, he was promoted to be brevet major-general, having passed during the war by successive promotions through the inferior grades from lieutenant-colonel upward, and received the thanks of congress and a gold medal. He received similar testimonials from the states of Virginia, Tennessee, and New York. He was subsequently engaged in the Creek and Seminole wars, and held the chief command of the southern military district till 1821, when the western division was assigned him. At the commencement of the Mexican war he called out a large force of the southern militia, without awaiting orders, and without obtaining any result commensurate with the expense, for which he was tried by a court martial, but not censured.

GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS, an English landscape and portrait painter, born in Sudbury, Suffolk, in the early part of 1727, died in London, Aug. 2, 1788. At a very early age he manifested a taste for drawing. Allan Cunningham says: At 10 years of age, Gainsborough had made some progress in sketching, and at 12 was a confirmed painter." At the age of 15 he was sent to London and placed under the instruction of Gravelet the engraver and Hayman the painter, and soon began to paint landscapes and portraits. But his position did not improve until his marriage in 1746 with a young lady named Burr, of striking beauty, and a fortune which laid the foundation of her husband's independence. He then resided successively in Ipswich and Bath, and in 1774 returned to London, where some portraits which he painted of members of the royal family at once gave him a name and ample employment. He passed the remainder of his life in London, where Sir Joshua Reynolds, his great rival and friend, had settled before him. In 1768 he was chosen one of the original 36 academicians, and from that time until 1784 he sent numerous pictures to the academy, excepting during the 4 years from 1773 to 1777, when, as was supposed, some dispute with Sir Joshua Reynolds deprived the academy of his contributions. It is said that Chatterton sat to him during this interval, and that the portrait was a masterpiece. As a landscape painter Gainsborough achieved the highest excellence, and was the first of his class in England to show any real originality. The "Life of Thomas Gainsborough," by George William Fulcher, edited by his son, appeared in London in 1856.

GAIUS, or CAIUS, a Roman jurist, who flour

ished during the reigns of the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Of his personal history little or nothing is known, and even the spelling of his name has been a subject of controversy. From references in the Digest it would appear that he was the author of upward of 15 works, of which the Institutes was by far the most important. This is supposed to have been the first work of the kind not compiled from previous sources, and to have afforded the first instance of a popular manual of Roman law in the sense of modern elementary text books. Such was the estimation in which it was held that after a lapse of 4 centuries from the period of its publication it was incorporated almost bodily into the celebrated Institutes prepared by the order of Justinian. The fame of Gaius as a legal writer, although amply sustained by the latter work, is established on a firm basis by the accidental discovery of a nearly perfect copy of his original treatise, supposed to have been lost after the promulgation of Justinian's compilation. In 1816 Niebuhr in a transient visit to Verona examined a palimpsest in the cathedral library, containing 251 pages, of which one detached and undefaced leaf of 2 pages had been described and partly published by Scipio Maffei 60 years before, with a conjecture that it was part of a compendium of Justinian's Institutes. With this exception the whole original manuscript had been washed and sometimes scratched out and overlaid with the epistles of St. Jerome, and 63 pages had been written over a second time; yet Niebuhr succeeded in restoring and deciphering a portion of it, and at once concluded that it was a treatise of some ancient jurist of celebrity, probably Ulpian. He communicated the results of his labors to Savigny, who published them, together with a learned note suggesting that the ancient text of the parchment was the lost Institutes of Gaius. The sensation caused by these investigations induced the royal academy of Berlin in 1817 to send two accomplished civilians, Göschen and Hollwegg, to Verona, who, after incredible labor in deciphering the characters on the parchment, succeeded in making a transcript of the original writing with the exception of 3 leaves and a few scattered passages which were illegible. A comparison of the work thus recovered with the quotations in the Digest, and its agreement with the Institutes of Justinian, confirmed Savigny's conjecture, and the discovery, by clearing up difficulties in the interpretation of ancient jurisprudence before regarded as hopeless, has been considered to form an era in the study of Roman law. Several editions of the text have been published, that of Göschen of 1842 being considered the best; and commentaries on detached portions by Van Assen, Heffler, Klenze, Böcking, and others, have appeared; but no edition of the whole work with a good commentary has yet been published.

GAJ, LJUDEVIT, a Slavic journalist, born in Croatia about 1810, studied in Hungary and