sand. In some places fossil shells and other marine organic remains abound in the greensand, being grouped together in layers of a few feet in thickness. The species are numerous and often beautifully preserved. This is especially the case with those found in the overlying yellowish limestone; all are extinct. Of 60 shells collected by Lyell, 5 proved to be identical with European species, viz.: ostrea larva, O. vescicularis, gryphæa costata, pecten 1 quinquecostatus, belemnites mucronatus. Prof. Forbes regarded 15 of the 60 "as good geographical representatives of well known cretaceous fossils of Europe." Beside these organic remains are found teeth and vertebræ of sharks and some other fishes, also teeth and other vestiges of crocodiles and several other saurians, some of gigantic size. Remains of several crustaceous animals, as crabs, are also met with, and finely preserved specimens of various species of the echinodermata, and of zoophytes, sponges, &c. The shells which most abound in the greensand, occasionally making up the principal portion of the layers in which they occur, are gryphæas, terebratulas, ostreas, belemnites, and the exogyra costata, the last named a very common and large bivalve peculiar to the cretaceous group. The greensand is of importance for its fertilizing property; and this is found to be derived, not from the calcareous nature of its organic remains, but from the green grains which commonly make up the great proportion of its beds. These, as they are found in New Jersey, when separated from adhering sand and clay, present a composition varying only within a limited range, and not differing from that of the greensand near Havre, France, as determined by Berthier. But according to the analysis of Dr. Turner, the same mineral substance of Kent, England, is deficient in the very element, potash, to which its valuable qualities in this country are essentially owing. Some of the same material also met with in Marshfield, Duxbury, and Gay Head, Mass., resembles the English in this particular. The results of the analysis by Dr. S. L. Dana of the variety at Gay Head, and the mean of many analyses of the greensand of New Jersey, as given by Prof. Rogers, are presented, with the others referred to, in the following table:

alumina. These salts are sometimes decomposed where they are brought in contact with carbonate of lime of the fossil shells, and the sulphuric acid uniting with the lime gives rise to sulphate of lime or gypsum. Thus the noxious ingredients disappear, and a valuable auxiliary is added to the fertilizing compound. The same may be artificially and more effectually obtained by the addition of lime and working it into the greensand, with which it is left for a season before using. In New Jersey the greensand (there called marl) is dug from pits during the winter, and brought out upon the fields, where it is spread to be ploughed in. Twenty loads to the acre have been found a more effective application than 200 loads of good stable manure. The effect is experienced with the first crop, and continues for several years afterward.-Concerning the real nature and origin of the greensand grains nothing was known until, by the recent investigations of Ehrenberg, they were shown to be in many instances the casts of the microscopic shells of polythalamia (the manychambered) and some other organic bodies. The shells themselves had disappeared; but the internal form of their cavities was retained in the more durable silicate of iron, which took the place of the animal bodies as these decayed, and preserved their shapes. Even the very finest canals of the cell walls, and all their connecting tubes, are thus petrified and separately exhibited. Many of the grains which cannot be recognized as of this origin, still suggest some connection with animal bodies by their forms being sometimes lobed and again presenting the appearance of coprolites. Prof. Bailey by his experiments confirmed the conclusions of Ehrenberg, and, extending his investigations to cretaceous rocks from Alabama and W. Texas, found attached to them grains of greensand exhibiting the same phenomena. From specimens of marl and limestone of the eocene of the southern states he also succeeded in bringing to light similar grains of the same character by dissolving away with dilute acid the calcareous matters. One of his specimens was brought up in sinking the Artesian well at Charleston from the depth of 140 feet. The soundings of the coast survey brought up from the depths of the ocean, in the Gulf stream and the gulf of Mexico, present among other matters, some resembling greensand. Count Pourtales reports one sounding as of this character obtained in lat. 31° 32', long. 79° 35', at the depth of 150 fathoms. This, as well as the others referred to, were examined by Prof. Bailey, who found them to be greensand, and that this is often in the form of well defined casts of polythalamia, minute mollusks, and branching tubuli. The material he recognized to be the same as that of the fossil casts; but the chief part of the soundings he found consisted of perfectly preserved shells of the same species, which retained their brilliant colors, and gave evidence by treatment with acid that the soft parts were still present, thus proving the recent existence

of the animals. Hence it appears that in some deep seas the production of greensand is still going on, and formations of this obscure material are there growing up by the same agencies which elaborated those of ancient geological periods.

GREENSBOROUGH, a post village of Greene co., Ala., on the Georgia railroad, 18 m. E. from Eutaw; pop. in 1853, about 2,500. It is surrounded by large cotton plantations, and has a flourishing trade. It contains a court house, gaol, several schools and academies, a female college under the charge of the Presbyterians, and in 1850 had 3 churches, 2 banks, and one or two newspaper offices.

GREENSTONE, a trappean rock of granular texture, either crystalline or compact, composed of hornblende and feldspar, or augite with either feldspar or oligoclase. Its greenish color is chiefly derived from that of a silicious base of variable and indefinite composition. It is called trap when in columnar form. Basalt is essentially the same rock. Being of irregular fracture, too hard to cut, and lacking uniform grain, it is unfit for use in building except of rough walls. (See BASALT, and TRAP.)

GREENUP, a N. E. co. of Ky., bordering on the Ohio river; area, 480 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 9,654, of whom 606 were slaves. It is hilly and well timbered, has a fertile soil, and abounds in coal and iron. The productions in 1850 were 5,513 bushels of wheat, 39,630 of oats, 323,488 of Indian corn, and 10,491 lbs. of wool. There were 5 grist mills, 3 saw mills, 15 churches, and 694 pupils attending public schools. Value of real estate in 1855, $1,593,717. The county was formed in 1803, and named in honor of Christopher Greenup, governor of Kentucky from 1804 to 1808. Capital, Greenupsburg.

GREENVILLE, a N. W. district of S. Carolina, bordering on N. Carolina, and bounded W. by Saluda river; area, about 800 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 20,156, of whom 6,691 were slaves; white pop. in 1859, 16,842. The Blue Ridge touches the N. border, and the rest of the surface is pleasantly diversified. The soil is generally fertile. The productions in 1850 were 637,784 bushels of Indian corn, 60,682 of wheat, 108,574 of oats, 79,731 of sweet potatoes, 15,782 lbs. of rice, and 2,452 bales of cotton. There were 5 cotton factories, 17 grist mills, 7 saw mills, 47 churches, 2 newspaper offices, and 960 pupils attending public schools.-GREENVILLE, the capital, and the W. terminus of the Greenville and Columbia railroad, is a favorite summer resort, and contains several churches and academies; pop. in 1850, 1,305.

GREENWICH, a parliamentary borough and town of England, co. of Kent, on the right bank of the Thames, 5 m. E. by S. of London, with which it is connected by railway and steamers; pop. in 1851, of the borough, 105,784, and of the town, 34,801. It stands mostly on low, marshy ground. There are numerous churches, chapels, schools, and charitable institutions. But the great objects of attraction are its hospital for

superannuated and disabled seamen, and its observatory, whence longitude is generally reckoned. The hospital, first opened in 1705, occupies the site of an ancient royal palace called Greenwich house, Placentia, or the Pleas aunce," a favorite residence of several sovereigns, and the birthplace of Henry VIII. and Queen Elizabeth. It consists of quadrangular buildings, enclosing a square, and each bearing the name of the sovereign in whose reign it was erected. The N. W. quadrangle contains the apartments of the governor and the libraries of the officers and pensioners. The N. E. quadrangle is inhabited by the officers and men. In the S. W. building is the painted hall, a noble apartment, adorned with the portraits of British naval heroes and representations of naval victories. In the S. E. division is the chapel, the interior of which is richly decorated. This institution generally supports about 3,000 inpensioners, and from 5,000 to 6,000 out-pensioners. The in-pensioners are amply supplied with food, well and uniformly clothed, comfortably lodged, and allowed one shilling a week each for tobacco. The out-pensioners receive each an annual stipend which averages about £12. There is an infirmary connected with the hospital, and a school for the children of decayed non-commissioned officers, seamen, and marines, which is attended by 800 scholars. The governorship of the hospital is usually held by some veteran naval commander. The observatory was erected by Charles II. for the advancement of navigation and nautical astronomy. Its organization is very complete. It is charged with the transmission of time throughout England by means of electro-magnetic circuits, in addition to its ordinary functions. Greenwich has several large factories, extensive engineering establishments, iron steamboat yards, ropewalks, &c. The borough, which comprises Greenwich, Deptford, and Woolwich, sends 2 members to parliament.

GREENWICH, a post township of Fairfield co., Conn., on Long Island sound, 31 m. N. E. from New York, and 76 m. S. W. from Hartford; pop. in 1850, 5,036. The New York and New Haven railroad passes through it, since the opening of which the town has become a favorite place of residence for New York merchants. It contains 3 villages, one of which bears the same name, and in 1850 had 3 churches, an iron foundery, a tool factory, and a wire factory. Putnam's hill, famous as the precipice down which Gen. Putnam galloped in his perilous escape from the British, is in this township.

GREENWOOD, FRANOIS WILLIAM PITT, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Boston, Feb. 5, 1797, died in that city, Aug. 2, 1843. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1814, and immediately commenced the study of theology under the direction of Dr. Ware, the Hollis professor, approving in the main, then and for the rest of his life, the views which were so prevalent in his native city under the name of liberal Christianity. He had indeed received his

religious education under the ministry at King's chapel of the venerable man with whom he was afterward to serve as colleague, and who, by the consent and cooperation of his society, had revised the "Book of Common Prayer" there in use so as to exclude the recognition of the Trinity. In Oct. 1818, he was invited to the pastorate of the new South church and society in Boston, where the previous ministries of President Kirkland and the Rev. S. C. Thacher had drawn together a remarkable congregation of cultivated and prominent persons. After a single year of his ministry his course was arrested by a pulmonary disease. The sympathy of his friends provided him with the means for foreign travel in the hope of a restoration of his health. He passed the winter of 1820'21 in Devonshire, England; but not gaining the strength which he needed, he wrote home to effect a complete severance of his connection with his society. He returned in the autumn of 1821. He passed a little more than two years at Baltimore, with some improvement in his health, enabling him to preach occasionally for the Rev. Jared Sparks, the minister of the Unitarian church, and to write for and to edit for nearly two years a periodical called the "Unitarian Miscellany." He married Miss Maria Goodwin of Baltimore. In 1824 he accepted an invitation from the society at King's chapel to become colleague with their pastor, Dr. James Freeman. Bodily infirmities compelled Dr. Freeman to give up all responsibility for the pulpit in 1827, and Mr. Greenwood, with occasional interruptions caused by his own slenderness of constitution, discharged all official duties. He had a strong and cultivated taste for the natural sciences, conchology and botany being his especial favorites, and he was one of the first members of the Boston society of natural history. A return of hæmorrhage at the lungs compelled him to make a voyage to Cuba in 1837. While confined to a sick chamber the year before his death, he prepared for publication a volume entitled "Sermons of Consolation" (1842). Others of his publications may be found in the "Christian Disciple," the "Unitarian Miscellany," the "Christian Examiner," the Boston "Journal of Natural History," and the "North American Review." Some sermons and essays from his pen appeared singly. Beside these, he was the author of the following: History of King's Chapel" (12mo., Boston, 1833); "Lives of the Twelve Apostles" (1838); and "Sermons to Children." After his decease his friend and parishioner, the Hon. Samuel A. Eliot, edited two volumes of his sermons from the MSS., and prefaced them with a memoir of the author; and a volume of his miscellaneous writings was published by his son (12mo., Boston, 1846).

GREENWOOD, MILES, an American manufacturer, born in Jersey City, N. J., March 19, 1807. He removed to the West with his father in 1817, and settled near Cincinnati. In 1832 he commenced on the Miami canal, in what was

then the outskirts of the city, though now near its centre, the Eagle iron works, at first a small establishment, but which speedily became the largest manufactory of the West, covering several acres of ground, and employing more than 500 hands. In 1846 a destructive fire swept away the results of 13 years' labor, but in the course of a few months the factory was once more in operation on a more extensive plan and stronger footing than ever. Steam engines, iron buildings, stoves, iron furniture, ornamental castings, and a countless variety of small articles, are made there. Butt hinges, always before imported from England, were first successfully made in the United States by Mr. Greenwood. The establishment annually consumes 6,000 tons of iron ore. Mr. Greenwood was one of the originators of the Ohio mechanics' institute, contributed largely to the erection of their present building, and was mainly instrumental in organizing the paid fire department of Cincinnati and introducing steam fire engines.

GREGOIRE, HENRI, a French ecclesiastic and politician, born in Vého, near Lunéville, Dec. 4, 1750, died in Paris, April 28, 1831. He commenced active life as a parish priest, but being nominated by the clergy of Lorraine in 1789 to represent them in the states-general, he at once took ground as a republican, and was one of the first of the clergy to take the oath of fidelity to the constitution. He voted against primogeniture and special privileges, and zealously advocated the admission of Jews and men of color to full rights of citizenship. Under the new constitution of the clergy the department of Loir-et-Cher in 1792 elected him bishop, on which he assumed, from the seat of the episcopate, the appellation of bishop of Blois. In the convention he led the movement for the abolition of the regal office, and made a bitter speech against kings in general, ending by demanding that Louis Capet should be brought to trial. One maxim of his became a watchword of the revolution: L'histoire des rois est le martyrologie des nations. His oration caused him to be made, the same day, president of the convention, and he boasted in his memoirs that he presided in his episcopal gown. Grégoire was absent with three other delegates revolutionizing Savoy when the king was brought to trial, but with his colleagues he wrote from Chambéry to the convention: "We declare that our vote is for the condemnation of Louis Capet by the convention, without appeal to the people." He afterward took pains to make it appear that he did not express the wish that the king should be condemned to death, but that he should be "condemned to live." Further, he says he endeavored to save the life of the king, by pro posing to abolish the death penalty. Throughout all those troublous times he exhibited a marked boldness in defence of religion. When Gobel, the archbishop of Paris, assented to the worship of Reason, Grégoire boldly declared to the commune: "Catholic by conviction and sentiment, and priest by choice, I have been

elected by the people to be bishop, but it is neither from them nor you that I hold my mission!" He contributed zealously to preserve the monuments of art, and also extended his protection to men of letters and artists. In 1800 he entered the legislative body, and having been transferred in 1801 to the senate, formed one of the minority of 5 opposed to the accession of the first consul to the throne. He alone opposed the reestablishment of titles of nobility, although Napoleon, unwillingly, on the request of both houses of the legislature, afterward made him a count of the empire and officer of the legion of honor. He was equally opposed to the emperor's divorce, and declined to be present at the marriage with Maria Louisa. On Napoleon's first reverses, in 1814, Grégoire pronounced against him an oration more vehement than that which he had spoken against Louis XVI. He was not comprised in the chamber of peers formed by the Bourbons in 1814, nor in Napoleon's chamber in the Hundred Days. On the 2d restoration he was excluded from the institute, was deprived of his bishopric, and was compelled by the stoppage of his pension to sell his library for the means of support. He retired to Auteuil, where he passed the last 15 years of his life in literary labors. The excitement of the revolution of 1830 hastened his death. He never departed from the stand he had taken in sustaining the order of things established by the constituent assembly over the affairs of the church. The last offices of religion were denied him on his death-bed by his ecclesiastical superiors, in consequence of his refusal to retract the oath he had taken to the assembly; but the civil power having interfered, funeral rites were performed over his body in the church of l'Abbaye aux Bois by a proscribed priest. The people took his corpse in charge on emerging from the church, and, removing the horses from the hearse, drew it in solemn procession to the cemetery of Mont Parnasse. Bernardin de l'Oise describes Grégoire's character in saying that he wished to "Christianize the revolution." The most important of his numerous publications are his Histoire des sectes religieuses (2 vols. 8vo., 1810); Essai historique sur les libertés de l'église Gallicane (1818); De Pinfluence du Christianisme sur la condition des femmes (1821); Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs, des rois, et d'autres princes (1824); Histoire du mariage des prêtres en France (1826). He also wrote a work entitled De la littérature des Négres, containing sketches of the lives and writings of negroes "who have distinguished themselves in science, literature, and the arts," the object of which was to demonstrate the moral and intellectual capabilities of the African race. This work has been translated into English, and published both in Great Britain and the United States. His Mémoires, with a notice of the author by M. Carnot, were published in 1837.

GREGORIAN CHANT, a method of singing

the psalms and litanies of the church introduced by Pope Gregory the Great about 590. It was mainly founded on the Ambrosian chant, previously in use in the western churches, to the 4 authentic or principal modes of which Gregory, either for variety or convenience of the voice, added the plagal or collateral modes. His additional object in effecting this reform was to banish from the church all rhythmic singing, as too lively for the place and occasion, and to substitute in his own chant, which was called the canto fermo, a gravity and simplicity suited to the solemn offices of the church. He also established in Rome a school of instruction in the new method of singing, which existed for 3 centuries after his death. Notwithstanding the monotony of the Gregorian chant, its extreme simplicity and dissimilitude to secular music, or even to that at present employed in the services of the church, it is still in use, and during Lent and on other special occasions may be heard in all its ancient glory in Roman Catholic churches, and to a limited extent in those of other denominations. To the student of ancient music it is valuable as retaining some of the old Greek modes, which, according to Rousseau, "have still a beauty of character and a variety of expression which intelligent hearers, free from prejudice, will discover, though formed upon a system different from that in present use." It has been supposed that fragments of the melodies sung in the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries are discernible in the Gregorian chant.

GREGORIO, ROSARIO, a Sicilian archæologist, born in Palermo in 1753, died there in 1809. In 1789 he was appointed professor of law in the university of Palermo, but only accepted the office after 5 years' preparatory study of its duties. About this time appeared Vella's remarkable literary forgeries, purporting to be valuable Arabic documents relating partly to the history of Sicily and of Egypt, discovered by him in a mosque during his travels in the East. Gregorio, having doubts of their authenticity, made himself master of the Arabic language with the view of investigating them. His researches proved them to be spurious. In 1790 he published in Latin and Arabic the materials he had himself collected illustrative of the Saracenic rule in Sicily, and afterward a continuation of its history under the Aragonese sway. His principal work, in which he has embodied the substance of all his others, is Considerazioni sulla storia di Sicilia, dei tempi Normanni sino ai presenti (7 vols. 8vo., 1806-'16).

GREGORY, the name of 16 popes. I. A saint and doctor of the church, surnamed the Great, born of a noble family in Rome about 540, died March 12, 604. His parents were wealthy, but noted for their piety, his father Gordianus having renounced the world, and died a regionarius, that is, one of the 7 cardinal deacons who took care of the districts of Rome. His mother Sylvia also devoted herself to an ascetic life in an oratory near St. Paul's. Gregory