the Moors who had embarked in his cause. Recalled to France by Charles in 1370, he was created constable, and for several years was employed in the west and south against the English, driving them back step by step, and regaining many towns and places long occupied by them. During this struggle the duke of Brittany had been forced to remain neutral; but fancying himself threatened by Charles, he sought the alliance of England, which afforded Charles a pretext for invading the province and declaring its annexation to France. Du Guesclin, who could not look unconcerned upon this attempt to destroy the independence of his native country, advised less hasty counsels, and Charles had the folly to doubt the fidelity of his constable. The latter, indignant at the affront, resigned his sword of office, and departed to seek an asylum at the court of Castile. On the way he paused before Randon, which was besieged by a French army under Marshal Sancerre, and there sickened and died the day before the capitulation. The commander of the garrison, marching out at the head of his troops, placed the keys of the fortress upon the dead body of the hero.

GUESS, GEORGE, or SEQUOYAH, a half-breed Cherokee Indian, inventor of the Cherokee alphabet, born about 1770, died in San Fernando, northern Mexico, in Aug. 1843. He cultivated a small farm in the Cherokee country of Georgia, and was already known as an ingenious silversmith, when in 1826 he invented a syllabic alphabet of the language of his nation, comprising 85 characters, which was applied to writing and printing with complete success. Cherokee children were able to master the alphabet in a short time, and to write letters to their friends, and a newspaper called the "Phoenix," printed chiefly in Cherokee, was established 2 years afterward. Guess used part of the English alphabet in making up his own, although he was unable to read, and knew no language but the Cherokee. Having refused to be converted to Christianity, he lamented, it is said, his invention, when he saw that it had been used for translating the New Testament into Cherokee. He accompanied his tribe in their migration beyond the Mississippi, and resided for some time in Brainerd. In 1842 he went with other Indians into the territory of Mexico, where he was attacked by a sickness which ultimately proved fatal.

GUEST, in law, a transient person, visiting an inn for rest or food. For the law respect ing guests, and the difference between guests and boarders, see INNKEEPER.

GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE, a French natural philosopher, born in Etampes, Sept. 22, 1715, died in Paris, Jan. 7, 1786. He studied medicine in Paris, and having obtained his degree, devoted all his attention to the natural sciences under the direction of Réaumur. In 1743 he was admitted to the academy of sciences. His contributions to scientific knowledge are highly prized. Among his numerous papers on botany, the Mémoire sur la transpiration in

sensible des plantes (1752-'3) deserves special mention. His papers on zoology contain much curious information, and relate several interesting experiments; but his most important researches were connected with geology. His Mémoire et carte minéralogique sur la nature et la situation des terrains qui traversent la France et l'Angleterre (1751) established the geological identity of these two countries. His Mémoires sur quelques montagnes de France qui ont été des volcans (1752) were the foundation of the Plutonic theory. In his Mémoire sur les granits de France comparés à ceux d'Égypte (1755), he served the practical interests of France; which he most materially advanced when he discovered near Alençon a kind of earth very similar to the Chinese kaolin, thus giving birth to the manufacture of earthenware in that city, and leading the way to that of French porcelain. In his zeal for the diffusion of scientific knowledge, he undertook a geological map of France; but the scantiness of data then collected did not permit him to complete it.

Dr.

GUGGENBÜHL, LOUIS, a Swiss philanthropist, born in Zürich about 1812. He took the degree of M.D. in 1836, and spent a few weeks in a tour through his native country. It was on this journey that his attention was first drawn to the condition of the cretins, who are found in great numbers in the valleys of the Bernese Alps, and he resolved to enter upon a thorough investigation of the causes and means of cure of cretinism. The field was a new one, for up to that time the improvement of the cretin had been considered impossible. Guggenbühl spent 3 years in his investigations, 2 of which were passed in the little village of Seruf, in the canton of Glarus, where he was instrumental in restoring several to health. At the end of this period he had determined to devote himself and his little patrimony to the work of improving the physical, mental, and moral condition of these unfortunate beings. Deeming an elevated situation and pure air essential to their successful treatment, he purchased in 1840 a tract of about 40 acres on the Abendberg above Interlachen, in the canton of Bern, and erected some humble but commodious buildings, sufficient for the accommodation of about 30 children. Here, though at times disheartened by pecuniary embarrassments, and somewhat less sanguine of universal success than at the beginning, he has demonstrated that many of the cretins are capable of great improvement, and some of complete cure. Several of his former pupils are now occupying respectable positions in society. In 1852 he published a work on the cure of cretinism, and since that time several essays and reports of cases have appeared from his pen. He has repeatedly visited England, where he has been received with great attention; and the first movement for the training of idiots and cretins in Great Britain was in a very considerable degree brought about by his influence on Drs. Twining, Conolly, and others.

GUIANA, GUYANA, or GUAYANA, a territory of South America, on the N. E. coast, bounded N. and N. E. by the Atlantic ocean, E. and S. by Brazil, and W. by Brazil and Venezuela, and lying between lat. 0° 40′ and 8° 40′ N., and long. 51° 30′ and 61° W.; area loosely estimated at 94,000 sq. m., but the unsettled position of the boundaries renders a near approach to accuracy impossible. The term Guiana was formerly applied to all that extensive region comprised between the mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon, and extending S. as far as lat. 3° 30' S.; but about of this tract are now comprised within the boundaries of Brazil and Venezuela. In its present restricted sense, the territory is divided into the three colonies of British, Dutch, and French Guiana. The coast is low, flat, and skirted by a mud bank, so that vessels drawing more than 12 feet of water cannot anchor within 3 miles of land. Dangerous rocks and quicksands increase the difficulty of navigation near the shore, and the rivers are generally obstructed by accumulations of sand or mud at their mouths. The most important streams are the Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Corentyn, Surinam, Marowyne, and Oyapok, all of which discharge into the Atlantic. The last forms the E. boundary with Brazil. For a distance inland varying from 40 to 70 m. the country preserves the low flat character of the sea coast, its average elevation being about that of high water; and in some places, particularly where the soil has been consolidated and depressed by drainage, dikes are necessary to keep out the sea. Beyond this plain runs a range of hills from 50 to 200 feet high; and back of these stretch successively an elevated plateau, broken by occasional eminences, a second ridge of hills, a second low plain, and on the S. and W. boundaries mountain chains belonging to the Parima system and sending off several spurs into the interior. Their height does not exceed 4,000 feet. The prevailing geological formation is granite, which abounds in the highlands, and forms the substratum of the alluvial country along the coast. Gneiss, trap, sandstone, white quartz, red agate, and rock crystals are also met with, and very pure white clay is found in the Essequibo river. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and the proportion of cultivable land is very large. During the rainy season the plains are covered with water to the depth of one or two feet, and the deposit left on its subsidence is so rich that it has been exported to Barbados for agricultural purposes. The depth of this mould is about 12 feet. Marshes occupy a considerable part of the surface, and there are vast savannas which afford excellent pasturage. The interior in some places is sandy and rocky. The climate, except in certain localities, such as Cayenne, is mild and salubrious, and much more agreeable than that of the West India islands. The thermometer seldom rises above 90°, or falls below 72°, except far inland, where it ranges from 65° to 84°. The principal cause of this moderate

temperature is probably the trade wind, which reaches the coast after it has been cooled by its passage across a wide expanse of ocean. On the coast there are 4 seasons, 2 wet and 2 dry, the former lasting from the middle of April till September, and from the middle of November till the middle of January, and the latter from the middle of January till the middle of April, and from September till the middle of November. In the interior there are only 2 seasons. Thunder storms are frequent and violent, and slight shocks of earthquake are sometimes felt, but tornadoes never occur. Vegetation is luxuriant, and almost universal. The hills and river banks are overgrown with timber, much of which is of enormous size and high value. Mahogany, iron-wood (so called from its great hardness), the bullet tree, the cuamara or Tonquin bean tree, remarkable for its sweet-scented pulse, the gigantic mountain cabbage, the silk cotton tree, the great mira tree, the red mangrove, the pipeira, and the cocoanut are some of the principal forest trees. Cacao, guava, tamarinds, the aviato or avogato pear, plantains, bananas, and pineapples are among the most highly prized fruits. Cotton of good quality and coffee are produced, two crops of each being grown annually. The palma Christi, from the nuts of which castor oil is procured, the cassava, whose roots are ground into meal for making bread, ipecacuanha, ginger, and Indian yams, are also found. The flora is rich and varied, and includes the Victoria regia, the grandest of water lilies. The cultivated crops are tobacco, indigo, maize, rice, and sugar cane. The culture of cotton has been almost abandoned on account of the inability of the planters to compete with the United States. Wheat is not raised successfully. The principal animals are the jaguar, cougar, armadillo, ant bear, sloth, agouti, monkeys of many varieties, lizards, alligators, the manatee or sea cow, vampire bat, boa constrictor, black cattle of large size but tough flesh, and most of the domestic animals of Europe. Among the feathered race are the parrot, humming bird, peacock, spoonbill, and Muscovy duck. The inhabitants consist of aborigines of numerous tribes and many shades of color, Africans, and European settlers. The principal Indian tribes are the Warrau or Guaraunos, Arawaak, Caribs, and Akawai. The Warrau are the tallest, most industrious, and most sprightly. They dwell between the Orinoco and the Essequibo, in the N. W. part of British Guiana. The Akawai inhabit the mountains of the W., further inland than the preceding. The Arawaak, who are the dirtiest, darkest, laziest, and least courageous of all the tribes, are found along the coast from Demerara to Surinam; the Tajiras, a peaceable and indolent people, live E. of Surinam; and the Pianaghottoes and Caribs occupy the back country, the former maintaining an implacable hostility to the whites, and the latter being distinguished for their mild temper and handsome persons. The Indians will sometimes work for the colonists, but without perseverance

or regularity. Many of them support themselves by trading. The tribes have no common language.-BRITISH GUIANA, or DEMERARA, is the largest of the colonial divisions, and comprises the W. part of the country, extending along the coast from the mouth of the Orinoco to the Corentyn, which separates it from Dutch Guiana; area, about 50,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1851, 135,994, of whom 96,467 were whites, 7,682 coolies, and 14,251 Africans. The proportion of males to females was as 6 to 5. The W. part is hilly, and occupied almost wholly by Indians. A few settlements are scattered along the Pomaroon and Essequibo rivers, but most of the European establishments are on the Demerara, Berbice, and Corentyn, extending from the sea about 50 m. inland, and on the coast between the mouths of these rivers. The principal places are Georgetown at the mouth of the Demerara, and New Amsterdam at the mouth of the Berbice. The colony is divided into 3 counties, Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice, which before their consolidation under one government in 1831 formed so many separate colonies. The principal productions are sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, timber, dye stuffs, &c. The yield of coffee is decreasing, and that of cotton has almost entirely ceased. The movements of commerce in 1853, '4, and '5 were as follows:

1853... £847,183

£1,014,944 1,405,382

675 688

Vessels entered.

Vessels cleared.

Tons. No. Tons.

124,988 684 109,106 1854... 916,498 138,835 639 111,560 1855... 886,016 1,381,371 693 125,181 665 110,790

The law by which the colony is governed is founded upon the old Dutch law promulgated in 1774. The administration is vested in a governor, in a court of policy, which has ordinary legislative power, and consists of the governor with an equal number of official and non-official members, and in a combined court, which has control of the finances, and is composed of the court of policy and certain persons called financial representatives. These last and the non-official members of the court of policy are elected -the former by the people, male and female, and the latter by a college of electors chosen by popular vote. A property qualification is required of voters. The revenue in 1855 amounted to £255,008, and the expenditure to £239,511. British Guiana was discovered, according to some, by Columbus in 1498; according to others, by Vasco Nuñez in 1504. It was settled by the Dutch in 1580, and taken by the English in 1781, but restored to Holland in 1783. Thirteen years later it was again seized by Great Britain, in 1801 again restored, and in 1803 finally captured by the British, to whom its possession was confirmed in 1814. Slavery was abolished in 1834, but the apprentice system continued in force until 1838.-DUTCH GUIANA, or SURINAM, is the central of the 3 colonies, and is bounded W. by the Corentyn river and E. by the Marowyne;

area estimated at 30,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1856, 52,533, of whom about are negroes. The principal settlements are Paramaribo, the capital, situated on the Surinam about 10 m. from its mouth; Batavia, Orange, and Fredenburg, on the coast; and Wilhelmsburg, Magdenburg, and Jews' Town, in the interior. The hills are peopled chiefly by the Maroons or runaway negroes. About 27,000 of the inhabitants are Protestants (including 21,345 Moravians), 9,500 are Roman Catholics, and 1,414 are Jews. Commerce is carried on chiefly through the port of New Amsterdam, and the principal exports are coffee, molasses, sugar, and rum. The commercial statistics in 1853 were as follows: imports, $816,474; exports, $1,312,118; vessels entered, 201, tonnage 36,858; vessels cleared, 190, tonnage 36,858. About the commerce is with the mother country, and with the United States. The government is exercised by a governor-general appointed by the crown and a council elected by the freeholders. The revenue in 1850 amounted to $436,072, and the expenditures to $416,959. The colony shared the history of the Dutch settlements W. of the Corentyn until the final appropriation of the latter by Great Britain in 1803, the name Surinam having been applied to both Dutch and British Guiana. Slavery was abolished in Dutch Guiana in 1851, but by way of compensation to the owners the negroes are to work as apprentices without pay until 1863.FRENCH GUIANA, or CAYENNE, is the easternmost colony, and extends from the river Marowyne to the Oyapok; area, about 14,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1851, 17,625, showing a decrease of 2,170 since 1846. The colony is divided into the districts of Cayenne and Sinamari, and the capital, largest town, and principal commercial port is Cayenne, situated on an island of the same name at the mouth of the rivers Cayenne and Oyac. The principal plantations are also on this island. The colony is abundantly watered, and, in addition to the staples common to this part of the coast, produces pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs, which have been introduced from Asia, and, with the exception of nutmegs, are cultivated with great success. The trade, valued at $2,500,000 or $3,000,000 annually, is almost wholly with the mother country. The government is vested in a governor and privy council, and an assembly of 16 representatives chosen by the people. The first French settlements in Guiana were made in 1604. About 12,000 emigrants were sent out by the government in 1763, but nearly all fell victims to the climate, which was then far more deadly than it is now. The settlements were seized by the allied forces of Great Britain and Portugal in 1809, but restored to France by the treaty of Paris in 1814. Since 1848 the colony has been a penal settlement, for an account of which see ĈAYENNE.

GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, count, a French soldier and writer, born in Montauban, Nov. 11, 1743, died May 6, 1790. He served during the 7 years' war, and was so

much impressed with the superiority of the Prussian tactics that he began to advocate their introduction into the French army. In 1769 he served with distinction in Corsica. In 1772 he published his Essai général de tactique, with an introductory Discours sur l'état actuel de la politique et de la science militaire en Europe. This work made a sensation, and its author, who was at once young and handsome, became one of the lions of fashionable society. It was at this time that Mlle. de Lespinasse, the mistress of D'Alembert, fell in love with him and wrote him passionate letters, which were afterward published. On a journey through Germany, Guibert was received with honor by the emperor Joseph II. and by Frederic the Great, which circumstance still more enhanced his popularity at home. He now composed academical discourses and national tragedies; but his efforts were not crowned with success either at the academy or on the stage. In 1775 Count St. Germain, having been appointed minister of war, gave him employment, but he soon went out of office with his patron. In 1779 Guibert produced his Défense du système de guerre moderne, his best performance. His military works, including those above cited, were published in 1803 by his widow. His literary works followed in 1806 and 1822. GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO, an Italian historian, born in Florence in 1482, died there in May, 1540. At the age of 23 he held a professorship of law, and was afterward appointed ambassador to Ferdinand the Catholic. He was soon called to the court of Leo X., who made him governor of Modena and Reggio, which dignity he retained under the pontificate of Adrian VI. Clement VII. sent him to the Romagna, where he succeeded in quelling the conflicts of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. As lieutenant-general of the pope he defended Parma against the enemy, and subdued the revolted city of Bologna, after which he retired to Florence and commenced his history. On the assassination of Alessandro de' Medici, he exerted himself to defeat the project of the senate for restoring the republican form of government. Cosmo de' Medici was made governor by his influence, with a fixed income, and the real power was vested almost entirely in the council. But the new governor soon exchanged this title for that of duke, assumed absolute power in the state, and Guicciardini, who had been attached to him, resigned his office and retired. Of his "History of Italy," the first complete 16 books appeared in 1561, edited by his nephew. A few years afterward 4 more were added, but these are not complete. It has since been often reprinted in 20 vols., but the best edition is that by Rosini, 10 vols. (Pisa, 1819-20). Among the other remains of Guicciardini are Consigli ed avertimenti, &c., a part of his correspondence published by Bernigio under the title Considerazioni civili sopra l'istoria di Francesco Guicciar dini (Venice, 1582), and under that of Legazione di Spagna (Pisa, 1825).

GUICOWAR, or GYKWAR, DOMINION OF THE, or of BARODA, a state in the province of Guzerat, Hindostan, subsidiary to the British and subordinate to the presidency of Bombay; area, 4,399 sq. m.; pop. 325,526. It consists of the greater part of the peninsula of Guzerat, with some other detached portions, the whole lying between lat. 20° 40', and 24° N., long. 69° and 74° E., and being bounded S. W. by the Indian ocean, N. by the gulf and runn of Cutch and the territories of Oodeypoor, and E. by some minor Rajpoot states and a portion of the Bombay presidency. It is one of the richest regions of India, watered by the Sabermutty, Nerbudda, and other rivers, producing grain, cotton, sugar, indigo, tobacco, oil seeds, pulse, and flax, and having a long line of sea coast with many advantages for commerce. The trade is chiefly in grain and cotton. The inhabitants comprise Hindoos, Mohammedans, Parsees, and wild aboriginal tribes, the first being largely in the ascendant. Baroda is the capital and seat of the British resident. The guicowar was origi nally a prince of the great Mahratta confederacy, at the head of which were the descendants of Sevajee. In 1732 Damajee Guicowar threw off his allegiance, but having fallen by treachery into the peishwa's hands, was forced to yield one half of his possessions and acknowledge that he held the other half in fief to the Mahratta sovereign. During one of the many struggles for supremacy which took place between Da majee's descendants, the assistance of the East India company was invoked to put down a pretender to the throne. By a treaty in 1802 the British virtually acknowledged the guicowar's independence, which has since been gradually secured under a sort of British protection. In 1828 a portion of his territory was placed under sequestration by the East India company in satisfaction for certain debts.

GUIDI, TOMMASO. See MASACCIO. GUIDO ARETINO. See ARETINO. GUIDO RENI, an Italian painter of the Bolognese school, born in Bologna in 1575, died there in 1642. He studied under Denys Calvaert until the rising reputation of the Carracci induced him to enter their academy, where he became the favorite pupil of Ludovico Carracci. His pictures at this time are evidently in the style of Caravaggio. The Madonna della Pieta and the "Crucifixion" in the gallery at Bologna are good specimens of his productions at this period. Caravaggio's naturalism, however, alarmed the Carracci, and to a hint from Annibale as to the manner in which it might be successfully opposed is ascribed Guido's adoption of the style by which he is generally known. He afterward went to Rome, where his first picture, the "Martyrdom of St. Cecilia," was very successful. He received an order from the pope to decorate the private chapel of the palace of Monte Cavallo, but upon the completion of the work became disgusted with the parsimony of the papal treasurer and returned to Bologna, where he painted the "Massacre of

the Innocents." Recalled by the pope to Rome, he executed a number of important works, including his frescoes of the "Aurora" in the Rospigliosi palace, the "Concert of Angels" in the apsis of the Capella S. Silvia, the "St. Andrew" in the chapel of that name, and the painting of "Fortune" in the gallery of the capitol. He was invited to Naples, and had nearly finished the "Nativity," now in the choir of S. Martino, when he was driven away by the jealousy of the Neapolitan artists. The remainder of his life was passed at Bologna. The study of Raphael and of the antique had meanwhile effected a further change in his style, and he aimed at an ideal, which, however, is too often but an empty abstraction, devoid of individual life. At this period he gave himself up to play, and painted rapidly and carelessly to retrieve his losses. Many of his later works are consequently unfinished, and it is said that some which bear his name are works by his pupils to which he applied the finishing touches. The best of this period are his "Assumption," in the gallery at Munich, and the Madonna with angels, called Il Pallione, now in Bologna.

GUIENNE (anc. Aquitania), an ancient province in the S. W. of France, a part of the old kingdom of Aquitaine, bounded N. by Saintonge, Angoumois, Limousin, and Auvergne, E. by Languedoc, S. by Languedoc and Gascony, and W. by the bay of Biscay. This appellation, supposed to be a corruption of Aquitaine, appeared for the first time during the 13th century. The duchy of Guienne was given up to the king of England by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360, and was held by him almost without interruption until 1452, when it was reconquered by the army of Charles VII., under Dunois. Out of the territory of Guienne the departments of Gironde, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Aveyron, and part of those of Landes and Tarn-et-Garonne, have been formed.

GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE, a French orientalist, born in Pontoise, Oct. 19, 1721, died in Paris, March 22, 1800. He was so well versed in the oriental languages, the Chinese especially, that, though scarcely 20 years old, on the death of his teacher Fourmont he was appointed secretary-interpreter to the king. In 1752 the royal society of London elected him a member, and two years later the French academy of inscriptions did the same. His Histoire générale des Huns, Turcs, Mogols et autres Tartures occidentaux, avant et depuis J. C. jusqu'à présent (5 vols. 4to., 1756-'8) is the solid foundation of his fame. He afterward wrote several essays and papers, which appeared either in book form or in scientific collections; among the number is a curious mémoire in which he contends that the Chinese are but an Egyptian colony. De Guignes was also the editor of Father Amiot's translation of the Chou King, one of the sacred books of China.-His son, CHRÉTIEN LOUIS JOSEPH, born in Paris, Aug. 25, 1758, died March 9, 1845, was for 17 years French resident and consul at Canton, published, beside several

other papers, his Voyages à Péking, Manille et l'Ile de France, and edited under his own name in 1813 a Dictionnaire Chinois, Français et Latin, which was merely an adaptation of the Han-tsé-sy-y of Basile de Glemona. This plagiarism was denounced in 1819.

GUIJA, or GUIJAR, a large lake in the republic of San Salvador, 20 leagues in circumference, and of great depth. It receives several considerable streams, and discharges itself through the Lempa, which is the largest river flowing into the Pacific in all Central America. On the islands in this lake the aborigines had temples of great sanctity, the ruins of which still exist. The country around is volcanic.

GUILD (Sax. guildan, to pay), a society of tradesmen or artificers incorporated for the purposes of their craft. Each member contributes toward the expenses, whence the appellation. Among the Romans, at one period, various mechanical fraternities existed, which bore a resemblance to modern guilds in the fact that they were permitted to regulate their corporate affairs by their own laws. Some authorities have attributed the origin of guilds on the continent of Europe to the imitation of these fraternities, but apparently without reason. In England, according to some, they may be traced to the Saxon law which ordained that every freeman over the age of 14 should find security for his good behavior. To meet this requirement families formed themselves into associations of ten. Others find the origin of guilds in the proposals of Saxon boroughs, after the Norman conquest, themselves to collect the taxes imposed on them, rather than be subject to the exactions of the Norman bailiffs. Guilds were in operation long before they were formally licensed. Early charters of boroughs are usually addressed to the "burgesses,' or town's men, whom Madox defines to be "men who had a settled dwelling in the town, who merchandised there, and who were of the hans or guild." Guilds introduced the democratic element into society, and in their progress became the bulwarks of the citizen's liberty, and the depositaries of much political power. They probably first attained their development in the free cities of Italy, where the traders had to protect themselves against the rapacity of the lords. By the close of the 12th century merchants' guilds were general throughout the cities of Europe. The drapers' company of Hamburg dates from 1153, and that of the shoemakers of Magdeburg from 1157. Similar associations existed in Milan about the same date. They were common in France in the reign of Louis IX. With the increase of their wealth and strength the guilds either purchased or extorted from their rulers privileges which, once obtained, they were careful never to give up. By the 13th century they became possessed of considerable influence, and in the two succeeding ages were the counterbalance against the power of the nobles. By degrees they themselves grew into intolerable aristocracies, especially in Germany, where their