made up of a linear series of elongated cells, attached end to end; they sometimes have glandular bodies connected with them, as those which secrete the viscidity on the leaf of the sundew (drosera), or the irritating liquid of the nettle. In the invertebrates and in plants there are many evident connecting links between hairs and scales; vegetable hairs generally exhibit the phenomena of rotating fluids, or circulation of currents.

HAIR MANUFACTURES. The different kinds of hair serve a variety of useful purposes, some of which have been already noticed, as in the articles BRISTLES, and BRUSH. The short hair of cattle is an ingredient in mortar, binding the earthy particles together. The long hair of the tails of horses and of cattle is largely employed as the woof of the fabric known as hair cloth, the warp of which is a black yarn, of linen, cotton, or worsted. It is also used for sieves, for strings for fiddle bows, and for fishing lines; and the short qualities, prepared by the process called curling, are the best material for stuffing mattresses, sofas, and other seats. Human hair is an article of trade for the use of perruquiers, and in some countries, as France, Belgium, and Germany, traders in it visit the same districts annually, buying the hair of the peasant girls, who allow it to be clipped for a trifling amount, sometimes a few trinkets, ribbons, or handkerchiefs, of the value of 11 or 12 English shillings. The quantity obtained from each one rarely exceeds a pound weight. A Dutch company engaged in this business visit England annually for orders, and in the last century they found a ready market for the light hair so common in their country. For that of a golden tint they were accustomed to receive 8 shillings an ounce, twice its weight of silver. T traders acquire a singular skill in detecting the hair of different countries or even districts by its smell and other indications quite insensible to the uninitiated. Black hair is obtained chiefly from Brittany, and to the amount of 200,000 lbs. annually. The quantity of all kinds imported into London is estimated at not less than 5 tons a year. Beside its use for the head, it has of late years been employed as a material for delicate articles of jewelry, being plaited into suitable forms for ornamental pins, ear rings, &c. By the early Egyptians the use of wigs was regarded as a more cleanly practice than wearing the natural hair. Artificial hair was also worn by the Greeks, Assyrians, Persians, and Romans, and with the last named the blond hair of the Germans appears to have been in high esteem.-Horse and other hair used for weaving into cloth is collected at the factories from various sources, much of it being imported from South America. It is assorted for manufacturing according to its qualities and length; the long white is reserved for fiddle bows and for spinning, or to be dyed with bright colors; and the long black and gray is dyed black for weaving into cloth. The short hairs are curled for stuffing cushions, &c.; and medium lengths are VOL. VIII.-41

kept for weaving into coarse fabrics, as horse hair gloves, filtering bags, &c. For weaving into ordinary hair cloth, the long black hairs are further assorted in bunches of uniform lengths by hackling and carding. They are kept flexible and ready for use in a vessel of water, and are furnished to the weaver one at a time by a child upon the opposite side of the loom, who throws the hair over the hook of the shuttle, and the weaver draws it through to the other side, when the batten is driven home twice. The warp threads are then shifted by the treadles, and a new shuttle way is opened for the next thread of the woof. Each of these threads is thus formed of a distinct hair, and the width of the fabric is limited by the least length of the hairs. This is sometimes, but rarely, 40 inches; for such width much time is required to select enough of the long hairs. The warp is dressed with paste in the usual way. The fabric is finally hot-calendered to give it lustre. Horse hairs may be bleached nearly white, and they are dyed of various colors. The western Indians dye them of a bright scarlet, and use them in tufts together with gaudy colored feathers for ornamental purposes.-The short hairs are prepared by first carding them by hand; they are next tossed by canes held by a boy, one in each hand, so as to fall in a tuft, which is consolidated by several quick blows. The tuft is taken by a man and applied to a wheel, which he swings round with one hand, thus causing it to be twisted into a rough rope. A second tuft is worked in before the first is exhausted, and so the work goes on, the rope being occasionally wound up on the wheel, till enough is obtained for a bundle. In this form this kind of hair is often seen as a commercial article. The curled character is given to the hair by steeping the bundles a few hours in cold water, then drying them in a very hot oven, the heat of which is gradually reduced for 24 hours. When the ropes are now untwisted and picked to pieces, the hairs will be found to possess the peculiarly springy character of curled hair.

HAIR POWDER, a preparation of pulverized starch and some perfume, formerly used to whiten the head. Sometimes the powder was colored. The custom of using it was introduced from France into England in the reign of Charles II. It was occasionally practised by old men in the United States in the present century, but the fashion has at last entirely disappeared.

HAKE, a name properly applied to fishes of the cod family, of the genus merlucius (Cuv.), and improperly in New England to gadoids of the genus phycis (Artedi). There is great confusion in the application of the names to the first genus; the European merlucius, properly called hake, is styled the merlan or whiting in the Mediterranean; our merlucius is also generally called whiting, but the true whiting is a merlangus, one of the species of which we name pollack; the American hake, or phycis, is styled codling by De Kay, in order to avoid confusion.

The European hake (merlucius vulgaris, Cuv.) is generically distinguished from the cod by having only 2 dorsal fins, a single long anal, and no barbule on the chin; the head is flattened, the body elongated, the first dorsal short, the 2d dorsal and the anal long and deeply emarginated. The color on the back is ashy gray, and below dirty white. The wide mouth is provided with numerous long, sharp, incurved teeth on both jaws, on the palate, and in the pharynx. It is abundant in the ocean and in the Mediterranean, and on the coasts of Ireland and Cornwall in immense shoals from June to September during the mackerel and herring seasons; it grows to a length of 1 or 2 feet, is very voracious, and feeds principally on the last mentioned fishes. Its flesh is white and flaky, and is dried in northern countries like that of the cod; from its inferior quality it is commonly called "poor John;" the liver is a delicate dish, and was highly esteemed by the ancients. The American hake (M. albidus, Mitch.), very generally called whiting in New England, and sometimes silver hake, is 1 or 2 feet long; when alive, the upper parts of the body and sides are rusty brown with golden reflections, becoming leaden after death; silvery white beneath; iris silvery; dorsals and caudal rusty, pectorals and ventrals sooty, anal colorless, inside of the mouth purple, and lateral line lighter than the upper parts; the lower jaw is the longer, and the teeth are very long and sharp. It is found from New York northward, and is especially abundant in the British provinces; it is exceedingly voracious, pursuing the smaller fishes, and is caught in great numbers in some seasons both in nets and by hooks; its flesh, when fresh, is sweet and wholesome, but it soon becomes soft and tasteless; from the difficulty of preserving it, the fishermen do not take the trouble to salt it, and rarely use it except for bait and manure.-The American bakes of the genus phycis have an elongated body; 2 dorsals, the 1st triangular with the 3d ray filamentous and prolonged, the 2d commencing just behind the 1st and extending nearly to the caudal; the ventrals with a single ray at the base, afterward divided; anal long and single; chin with one barbule. The white or common hake (P. Americanus, Schneider) grows to a length of from 1 to 3 feet, and when alive is reddish brown above, bronzed upon the sides, and beneath whitish with minute black dots; upper edge of the dorsal black, as is the edge of the anal and end of the caudal; fins also dotted with black; after death the back becomes grayish brown, and the abdomen dirty white; the head is very flat above, broad, strongly convex back of the eyes, with prominent rounded snout and large eyes; upper jaw the longer, and both well armed with rows of sharp incurved teeth; teeth also on the vomer. It is found from the New Jersey coast northward, and is taken in large numbers in Massachusetts bay, the bay of Fundy, and the gulf of St. Lawrence during summer, chiefly on

muddy bottoms, and generally at night or in cloudy days; it feeds principally on small fish and crustaceans. It is an excellent fish for the table, fried or boiled, and for a chowder has no superior; its price is about half that of cod; it is also a valuable fish when salted, and in this condition is largely exported from the British provinces under the name of ling. On account of the sharp teeth of this, as well as of the preceding genus, it is necessary to protect the lines by wire for some inches above the hook, as a common cod line is very soon bitten off. There is a small species (P. filamentosus, Storer), called squirrel hake by the Massachusetts fishermen, which rarely exceeds a length of 18 inches or a weight of 2 lbs.; the head is longer in proportion, the body more slender, top of the head depressed in its whole extent, and the filamentous ray of the 1st dorsal considerably longer than in the preceding species; there are no spots upon the pure white of the lower parts. Other species are described in America, on the coast of Europe, and in the Mediterranean.— The name hake is also erroneously given on the coast of New Jersey to the king fish, a scianoid of the genus umbrina (Cuv.), from its having a barbule on the chin.

HAKLUYT, RICHARD, an English historian of voyages and travels, supposed to have been born in London in 1553, died in 1616. After studying at Westminster school, he was sent in 1575 to Christchurch college, Oxford, where he applied himself especially to geography or cosmography, upon which he was appointed lecturer, and interested himself in the voyages then made to the new world by his own countrymen and others. He was master of arts and professor of divinity when in 1584 he accompanied the English ambassador Sir Edward Stafford to Paris, where he remained 5 years. He found there in the libraries a history of the voyages made to Florida by Laudonnière and others, which he published in French, and afterward (1587) in English. He also annotated and published in 1587 Peter Martyr's work De Novo Orbe, which was translated into English at his suggestion by M. Lok, under the title of the "Historie of the West Indies." While in Paris he received a prebend of Bristol, and he was subsequently made prebendary of Westminster and rector of Wetheringset, in Suffolk. On his return to England he was appointed by Sir Walter Raleigh one of the company of gentlemen adventurers and merchants, to whom were granted large concessions under Raleigh's patent, in the hope that they would replenish Virginia with settlers. The work to which he owes his reputation is the "Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation" ( 1 vol., London, 1589; enlarged ed., 3 vols., 1598-1600; new ed., with additions, 5 vols., London, 1809-'12). The second edition comprises the voyages to the north and north-east toward Lapland, Nova Zembla, and the mouth of the river Obi, the travels in Russia, Armenia, Tartary, &c., the voyages to

the south and south-east, and the expeditions to North America, the West Indies, and around the world. Many curious public documents, such as charters granted by the czar, the sultan, and other monarchs, to English merchants, are preserved in it. In many copies the voyage to Cadiz (forming pp. 607-'19 of the first vol.) is omitted, having been suppressed by order of Queen Elizabeth after the disgrace of the earl of Essex. The additions to the last edition comprise all the voyages printed by Hakluyt or at his suggestion, which were not included by him in his great collection. "The best map of the 16th century," says Hallam, "is one of uncommon rarity, which is found in a very few copies of the first edition of Hakluyt's voyages. It represents the utmost limit of geographical knowledge at the close of the 16th century, and far excels the maps in the edition of Ortelius at Antwerp in 1588." Anthony à Wood prophesied that the work of Hakluyt, "being by him performed with great care and industry, cannot but be an honor to the realm of England, because possibly many ports and islands in America, that are bare and barren and only bear a name for the present, may prove rich places in future time.” ́ An analysis of the contents of Hakluyt's collection is given in Oldys's "British Librarian.”—The Hakluyt society, established in 1846, has published many narratives of old voyages and travels.

HÅKODADI, a city of Japan, in the province of Matsmai, near the S. end of the island of Yesso, on the N. side of the strait of Tsugar, about 40 m. from the city of Matsmai, and nearly in lat. 42° N.; pop. estimated at 20,000. It is one of the 3 cities which, by the treaty of March 31, 1854, negotiated by Commodore Perry, were opened to American commerce. It lies at the foot of a mountain 1,131 feet high, and is built on the shore of a beautiful and spacious bay, which forms one of the best harbors in the world. The town consists of rows of broad streets, rising one above the other in lines parallel to the beach, and communicating with each other by cross streets. The main street is 2 m. in length. The houses are mostly of wood and 2 stories in height, with fronts open to the street, and deep projecting eaves to keep off the rain and the sunshine. At night the fronts are closed by folding doors or shutters. The principal shops are those for the sale of silk; they are well supplied with elegant crapes of bright colors, and with raw silks of delicate hues. There are many large temples in the city, some of the Sintoo and others of the Buddhist sect; some of the latter are well built and gorgeously decorated. They are generally situated in the elevated and retired parts of the town, and partially encircled by trees. A temple near the main street has lately had attached to it a bazaar for the sale of provisions and curiosities to foreigners. In the different quarters of the town are fire-proof stores, strongly built, with thick whitewashed walls, deep window gratings, and massive shutters. Among

the products which enter into the commerce of the place is a species of sea weed, the fucus saccharinus, which is collected along the coast, bleached in the sun till it becomes perfectly white, and exported in considerable quantities to the southern provinces of Japan, where it is used for food, sometimes in a raw state, but generally after boiling, when it becomes soft and thick. Foreign ships in the port of Hakodadi can procure supplies of potatoes, rice, chickens, hogs, and fresh beef. Cargoes of rice can be obtained. There is an American consul and commercial agent stationed there. Coal mines have lately been opened, and are now worked near the city. Early in 1859 the imperial government ordered a telegraph line to be constructed from Yeddo to Hakodadi.

HALBERD, or HALBERT (Fr. hallebarde), a military weapon, a combination of the axe and spear, formerly carried by sergeants of infantry and artillery, and by the body guards of high personages. The weapon was formed of an axe, variously shaped, with a lateral projecting spur, and a perpendicular spear head, doubleedged. This steel head was fitted on an ashen shaft 6 feet long, and was sometimes of ornamental design, gilded or damaskened. It was adapted both for cutting and thrusting, but was unwieldy for either purpose. Sometimes it is called the Danish axe, and also the Swiss halberd. Meyrick supposes that it came into use in France in the time of Louis XI., and in England of Henry VIII., though similar weapons were probably employed at a much earlier period.

HALBERSTADT, a town of Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg, on the right bank of the Holzemme, 50 m. by rail from Brunswick; pop. 21,000. It is a place of great antiquity. The principal public buildings are the Dom, or cathedral, a venerable Gothic structure, which contains one of the finest collections of the episcopal and priestly robes of the middle ages that can be found in northern Europe; and the church of Our Lady, erected in the 11th century, in the Byzantine style, with singular bass-reliefs and wall paintings. The chief manufactures are woollen cloth, gloves, carpets, refined sugar, leather, tobacco, and chemical products. The poet Gleim gathered around him in this town a large circle of authors, which was called the poetical union of Halberstadt; and he was buried there.

HALCYON DAYS, a name given by the ancients to the 7 days which precede and the 7 days which follow the winter solstice, because during this period the halcyon, or kingfisher, deposited her eggs close by the margin of the sea; and as at that season the weather in southern Europe is generally mild and calm, the phrase "halcyon days" came to signify times of peace and tranquillity.

HALDANE, ROBERT, a British philanthropist, born in 1764, died Dec. 12, 1842. Though heir to a large property, he had a passion for a seafaring life, and in 1780 entered the royal navy. He served in the Foudroyant under Capt.

Jervis, afterward Earl St. Vincent, and specially distinguished himself. On the establishment of peace in 1783, he went in a mercantile capacity to Newfoundland and Lisbon, after which he retired from the navy, married, and settled on his estate of Airthrey. He welcomed the French revolution with an enthusiasm which exposed him to obloquy among his own countrymen; and the speedy disappointment of his hopes by the revolutionary excesses contributed to awaken his interest in religion, which he studied with the greatest care, both in its records and principles and in its practical results. Thoroughly convinced at length of the divine origin of Christianity, he resolved to consecrate his life to its advancement, having for his motto: "Christianity is every thing or nothing; if it be true, it warrants and commands every sacrifice to promote its influence; if it be not true, let us lay aside the hypocrisy of professing to believe it." He conceived a vast scheme of missionary labor in India, the missionaries to be accompanied by schoolmasters and a printing establishment, and all the expenses to be borne by himself. The plan was so novel that the East India company, suspecting some ulterior and sinister design, refused their sanction, and he was obliged to abandon it. Scotland was then selected as the field of his enterprise. He sold his estate, and devoted his means to hiring and erecting places of worship at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and throughout the country, and in educating pious young men for the ministry. His efforts were attended with remarkable success. In 1816 he went to the continent for 3 years to extend his influence, and at Geneva and Montauban was indefatigable in impressing his views of the gospel especially upon ministers and upon candidates for holy orders. He originated a plan for the evangelization of Africa, and imported 30 children from Sierra Leone to receive Christian education, giving his bond for £7,000 to pay the expenses. At the commencement of his revival labors in Scotland he seceded from the established church, and adopted many of the tenets of Sandeman, with some rigid forms of discipline; and he afterward joined the Baptists, but gave no prominence to peculiar sectarian views. He published a work on the "Evidence and Authority of Divine Revelation" (Edinburgh, 1816), an "Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans" (London, 1835), and several minor writings.-JAMES ALEXANDER, brother of the preceding, born in Dundee, July 14, 1768, died in Edinburgh, Feb. 8, 1851. He went to sea in 1785 in the service of the East India company, obtained distinction as an enthusiastic and intrepid seaman, and, after making 3 voyages to Bombay and China, was in 1793 appointed captain of the Melville Castle. The voyage was deferred for 4 months, and in the interval be experienced a religious change like that of his brother, sold his commission and his share in the ship's property for £15,000, and retiring to Scotland engaged in religious

studies and contemplation. He soon resolved to devote himself to the service of religion, opened Sabbath schools, distributed tracts, and began to preach, first in the villages around Edinburgh, and then throughout Scotland. His principal associate was the African tourist John Campbell, and they itinerated through the country as far as the Orkneys, everywhere attracting large audiences, for which churches were immediately built by his brother Robert. In 1799 he became pastor of the Tabernacle, Leith walk, Edinburgh, in which office he continued without emolument for more than 50 years, with remarkable fidelity and zeal. His life with that of his brother, by Alexander Haldane (8vo., London, 1852), is one of the most interesting of Christian biographies.

HALDĒMAN, S. S., an American naturalist and philologist, born near Columbia, Lancaster co., Penn., in 1812. He entered Dickinson college, where he remained until 1830, was appointed an assistant in the New Jersey geological survey in 1836, and in the Pennsylvania geological survey in 1837. While engaged upon the latter he discovered the oldest then known fossil, the scolithus linearis. In 1851 he became professor of natural history in the university of Pennsylvania, and about 1855 accepted the same chair in Delaware college, Newark, Del. He holds also the professorship of geology and chemistry to the agricultural society of Pennsylvania at Harrisburg, and is distinguished for his knowledge of entomology. In the "Bibliographia" of Agassiz, p. 168, is a list of 73 memoirs by Mr. Haldeman, on a wide range of subjects in conchology, entomology, and palæontology, published in the "Journal" and "Proceedings" of the academy of natural sciences and American philosophical society, Philadelphia, and the American academy and the natural history society at Boston, in the "American Journal of Science," the U. S. report of Stansbury's expedition, &c. Among the most important is the Monographie du genre leptoris, published in Chenu's Illustrations conchyologiques, Paris, with 120 illustrations, and the "Monograph of the Fresh Water Univalve Mollusca," published at Philadelphia in 8 numbers (1840-45). Of late years he has confined his attention almost exclusively to investigations into the philoso phy of language, and has especially developed the powers of the consonant and vowel sounds. The final results are embodied in an essay which obtained in England in 1858 the highest Trevellyan prize over 18 European competitors. Prof. Haldeman chiefly insists upon the chronological order of consonantal and vowel muta. tion in the history of languages, and upon the organic necessities for the transposition, elision, absorption, transmutation, and adaptation of letters; but he has won success in the production of roots and the clearing up of false or obscure derivations. His memoir on the relations of the Chinese and English languages appeared in the "Proceedings" of the American association for the advancement of science in 1856.

HALE, BENJAMIN, D.D., an American educator and author, born in Newbury (now Newburyport), Mass., Nov. 23, 1797. He was graduated at Bowdoin college in 1818, and immediately afterward became principal of the Saco academy. In 1819 he entered the theological seminary at Andover, Mass., and was licensed to preach as a Congregationalist in Jan. 1822. He became tutor in geometry and natural philosophy in Bowdoin college in 1823, and principal of the Gardiner lyceum, an institution for the education of persons designed for the more practical callings in life, as farmers, mechanics, &c. Here he remained about 4 years, and during that time, beside his ordinary duties, he published a work entitled "Introduction to the Mechanical Principles of Carpentry" (8vo., Boston, 1827). In 1827 he became professor of chemistry and mineralogy in Dartmouth college, Hanover, N. H., and held that office until it was abolished by the trustees in 1835. Previous to this, however, he had received orders in the Protestant Episcopal church. During his residence at Hanover Dr. Hale delivered lectures on chemistry, pharmacy, medical jurisprudence, and natural philosophy, to the classes in the medical department. About the time that his professorship was abolished he published his "Scriptural Illustrations of the Liturgy" (12mo., 1835). While at Dartmouth college he laid the foundation for its extensive and valuable geological and mineralogical cabinet, and was the chief architect in the reconstruction of this building. The winter of 1835-'6 he spent in St. Croix, W. I., in consequence of an attack of bronchitis. On his return in the following summer, he was elected to the presidency of Geneva (now Hobart Free) college, N. Y., and in October entered on his duties. In consequence of his labors and anxieties, arising from the depressed state of the college and its financial condition, his health became so far impaired that after a voyage to Europe in 1852-'8, with no permanent benefit, he resigned his presidency, Jan. 19, 1858. Beside the books above mentioned, Dr. Hale has published a number of sermons, addresses, and occasional pamphlets, devoted with very few exceptions to the work which he had more immediately before himthe building up of an educational institution in which there should be combined with the highest intellectual culture of the mind the systematic and correct training of the heart in the religion of the gospel and church of Christ.

HALE, DAVID, an American journalist, born in Lisbon, Conn., April 25, 1791, died in Fredericsburg, Va., Jan. 20, 1849. After an education acquired chiefly in the district school of his native place and in the library of his father, a Congregational minister, he removed in 1809 to Boston, where for many years he was engaged in commercial pursuits. During his residence there he was also a frequent contributor to the newspaper press. In 1827 he was invited to take charge of the business and commercial department of the New York "Journal of Com

merce," then recently projected, and on Sept. 1 entered upon the duties of that position with the first number of the paper. În the latter part of 1828 he became associated with Gerard Hallock as owner and editor of the paper, a relation which he sustained until the close of his life. Under the management of Messrs. Hale and Hallock the "Journal of Commerce" attained an influential position among the New York journals, and the pen of the former was frequently employed with effect in its leading articles, notwithstanding the engrossing duties of the commercial department over which he presided. He was a prominent advocate of free trade, the sub-treasury, and other financial measures of the democratic party. In 1840 he purchased at a foreclosure sale the Broadway Tabernacle, then the largest hall for public uses, and particularly for religious meetings, in the city of New York. He was at that time a member of the Presbyterian church worshipping there, but in consequence of a recent protracted and earnest controversy with the session on the subject of the individual rights of members, his views of ecclesiastical supervision were tending to Congregationalism. Immediately after the purchase he accordingly invited such of the members of the old church as chose to join him in forming an orthodox Congregational church on the New England plan of individual freedom; and the result was the organization of a society which eventually became one of the largest and most influential in New York, the parent of many flourishing churches, and which still continues its career of prosperity. He leased the Tabernacle to the new society until 1845, and then sold it to them at the original cost, deducting the net earnings, notwithstanding its value had in the mean time considerably increased. He gave liberally to other churches, and for a number of years maintained from one to three missionaries in the thinly settled portions of the country. His liberality was displayed in many other walks in life, his aim being to afford assistance to worthy objects in proportion to his income. He was living in Virginia for the benefit of his health at the time of his death.

HALE, JOHN PARKER, an American statesman, born in Rochester, Stafford co., N. H., March 31, 1806. He received an academical education at Phillips academy, Exeter, entered Bowdoin college in 1823, and was graduated with distinction in 1827. Among his fellow students in college were Franklin Pierce, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry W. Longfellow, S. S. Prentiss, and Professor Stowe. In 1828 he went to Dover, N. H., to reside, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1830. He soon gained a large practice, and in 1832 was elected to the legislature of New Hampshire as a democrat. In 1834 he was appointed by President Jackson U.S. attorney for the district of New Hampshire, a position which he held till 1840, when he was removed by President Tyler on party grounds. In March, 1843, he was elected by the democratic