"Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review" (Oct. 1855, and Oct. 1859), by the writer of this article.

HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD, an English statesman, known as Single Speech Hamilton, born in London in 1729, died there, July 18, 1796. He was educated at Westminster school and Oxford university, and in 1754 entered parliament as member from Petersfield, Hampshire. On Nov. 13 of the succeeding year he delivered the famous speech which earned him his well known sobriquet. In the opinion of contemporary writers it was unsurpassed as a first effort by any previous parliamentary orator, and the highest expectations were formed of the speaker. Of this speech no copy was ever taken. Contrary to the belief long entertained that this was his solitary oratorical effort, he spoke again in parliament in the succeeding February, with masterly effect, and afterward at least twice in the Irish parliament. His eloquence recommended him to the ministry, and after serving as a lord of trade, he held office for many years in Ireland as principal secretary of the lord lieutenant, and as chancellor of the exchequer. In 1808 a posthumous work by him was published by Malone, entitled "Parliamentary Logic" (8vo., London), which was characterized by Jeffrey as affected and peculiar in style, and deficient in force, perspicuity, and accuracy. Hamilton is among those to whom the authorship of "Junius" has been attributed.

HAMILTON, WILLIAM RICHARD, an English archæologist, born in 1777, died in 1859. His university education was interrupted by ill health. For some time he was employed in diplomatic capacities in Turkey and Egypt. While in the latter country he secured for the British museum the celebrated trilingual Rosetta stone, which, undaunted by the plague which had broken out among the crew, he seized on board of the ship where the French had concealed it. He displayed the same zeal in regard to the Elgin marbles; having been on board the vessel on which part of them were shipwrecked near Cerigo, he remained in that island several months, and with the assistance of skilful divers succeeded in rescuing those famous works of art from the sea. Soon after his return to England he published Egyptiaca, or some Account of the Ancient and Modern State of Egypt" (royal 4to., London, 1810). Mr. Hamilton officiated for many years as under secretary of state for foreign affairs, and as ambassador in Naples. While in Paris with Lord Castlereagh in 1815 he succeeded in bringing about the restoration to Italy of the works of art which the French had seized on various occasions. His exertions were highly appreciated by the Italians, and above all by his friend Canova. He was one of the founders and for several years president of the London royal geographical society, and one of the trustees of the British museum from 1838 to Feb. 1858, when his fail

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ing health compelled him to resign his trust. His enlightened sympathies with the fine arts and his scholarly attainments were felt in many other literary and artistic associations of England, to which he ever proved a faithful friend.

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN, & British geometer and natural philosopher, born in DubÏin, Aug. 4, 1805. He gave early indications of extraordinary intellectual powers. At 3 years of age he was consigned to the care of his uncle, the Rev. James Hamilton; at 4 he had made some progress in Hebrew; in the two succeeding years he had acquired the elements of Greek and Latin, and when 13 years old he was in different degrees acquainted with 13 languages, beside the vernacular, including Syriac, Persian, Sanscrit, Hindostanee, Malay, French, Italian, Spanish, and German-the oriental languages having been taken up preparatory to a career in the East. At 14 years of age he addressed a letter of greeting in the Persian language to the Persian ambassador, Mirza Abou Hassan Khan. Falling in with a Latin copy of Euclid when 10 years old, he soon became interested in geometry, and at 12 he was fully confirmed in his taste for algebra. About this time he had some arithmetical contests with the American_prodigy, Zerah Colburn, then exhibiting in Dublin, in which, as Sir William afterward acknowledged, his competitor was usually the more expert. He studied the Arithmetica Universalis and the Principia of Newton, and the Mécanique céleste of Laplace, while in his 18th year, and about the same time entered upon his investiga tions in optics. In 1823 he entered the university of Dublin, where he at once gained the first place, and at every quarterly examination obtained the chief honor in science and the classics. In 1827, while still an undergraduate, he was appointed Andrews professor of astronomy in the university and astronomer royal of Ireland. Hamilton had for a rival claimant for this posi tion Mr. Airy, the present astronomer royal of England; he succeeded his friend and instructor Dr. Brinkley, who was promoted to the bish opric of Cloyne. He has since that time resided at the observatory at Dunsink, near Dublin, In 1837 he was elected president of the royal Irish academy, against the competing claims of the archbishop of Dublin and of Professor Lloyd. The honor of knighthood was conferred upon Mr. Hamilton by Lord Normanby, lord lieutenant, at the meeting of the British association for the advancement of science at Dublin in 1835, when the former held the post of secretary, and delivered the annual address. Sir William R. Hamilton has engaged in numerous investigations on scientific subjects, published in the "Transactions" and "Proceedings" of the royal Irish academy and royal society, in the "Proceedings" of the British association, in the "London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine," &c. As a lecturer in his chair he has been eminently distinguished. In 1828 he published in the "Transactions" of

the royal Irish academy an "Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays," the germ of which was read to the academy Dec. 3, 1824, by Dr. Brinkley, the president, who acted as its sponsor, under the title of a paper on "Caustics." In this essay Hamilton accomplished for optics what Descartes has done for geometry and Lagrange for mechanics-that is, the application of algebra, including the differential calculus, to those problems in the science of optics which spring from the hypothesis of transverse vibrations, or what is more generally called the undulatory theory of light. By a peculiar analysis, developed in this theory, he generalized the most complicated cases of common geometrical optics; and his prediction of the most singular and critical of all the results of Fresnel's theory, the conical refraction in biaxal crystals, amply rewarded his labors. His friend Dr. Lloyd, of Trinity college, Dublin, verified this result in the case of aragonite, which is a biaxal crystal; he found the position, dimensions, and conditions of polarization of the emerging cone of light to be exactly such as Hamilton's prediction assigned. Airy has designated it as "perhaps the most remarkable prediction that has ever been made;" and Professor Plücher of Bonn said of it: "No experiment in physics ever made such an impression upon my mind as this of conical refraction." Sir William received the Cunninghame gold medal from the royal Irish academy, and the royal gold medal of King William IV. from the royal society of London. In 1834 he published two papers in the "Philosophical Transactions" of the royal society of London, "On a General Method in Dynamics, by which the study of the motions of all free systems of attracting or repelling points is reduced to the search and differentiation of one central relation or characteristic function." Of the value of these papers we can give no higher conception than to mention that Jacobi translated largely from them, and accompanied his translations with copious comments. The last and most elaborate of Hamilton's writings is his "Method or Calculus of Quaternions" (Svo., Dublin, 1853), which formed the subject of successive courses of lectures delivered in 1848 and subsequent years, at Trinity college, Dublin. The three leading traits of the author's mind, originality, generalization, and intellectual independence, are conspicuous in this work. Hamilton aimed to show that "expressions which seem, according to common views, to be merely symbolical and quite incapable of being interpreted, may pass into the world of thoughts, and acquire reality and significance, if algebra be viewed, not as a mere art or language, but as the science of pure time." The fundamental geometrical view, adopted and developed in the "Lectures," is that according to which a quaternion is considered as the quotient of two directed lines in tridimensional space; and the motive (in this view) for calling such a quotient a quaternion, or the ground for connecting its

conception with the number four, is derived from the consideration, that while the relative length of the two lines compared depends only on one number, expressing their ratio, their relative direction depends on a system of 3 numbers-one denoting the angle between the 2 lines, and the 2 others determining the aspect of the plane of that angle, or the direction of the axis of the positive rotation in that plane.

HAMILTON COLLEGE, an incorporated literary institution situated in Clinton village, Kirkland township, Oneida co., N. Y., 9 m. S. of Utica. Its origin is due to the generosity of the Rev. Samuel Kirkland, who was a missionary for more than 40 years among the Oneida Indians. In 1793 the "Hamilton Oneida Academy" was incorporated through the influence of Mr. Kirkland, who presented its trustees with the title deed to several hundred acres of land. This academy existed 18 years, and was very prosperous. With the rapid growth of settlements in its neighborhood, the demand grew up for a higher institution. The charter for Hamilton college was obtained in 1812, after the death of Mr. Kirkland, which happened in 1808. Dr. Azel Backus, a Congregational clergyman, distinguished in Connecticut as a preacher and scholar, was chosen the first president. He died in 1817, and was succeeded by Dr. Henry Davis, whose administration, covering a period of 16 years, was marked by the extremes of prosperity and depression; he resigned in 1833. The 3d president, Dr. Sereno E. Dwight, a son of Timothy Dwight, held the office only 2 years; and the 4th, Dr. Joseph Penney, held it 4 years. The 5th president, Dr. Simeon North, a graduate of Yale college, was called to this office in 1839, after holding the classical professorship 10 years. During his long and quiet term of service 485 students were graduated in 19 classes. His successor, Dr. Samuel W. Fisher, also an alumnus of Yale college, received his election in July, 1858, and in the following month entered upon the presidential duties. The law department, endowed by the Hon. Wm. H. Maynard, and occupied by Prof. T. W. Dwight, is already an attractive professional school. The college has cabinets of minerals, fossils, and shells, containing 13,000 specimens, and an observatory, recently completed, at a cost of $15,000, with a large telescope. The productive funds of Hamilton college, including the Maynard and Dexter professorships, amount to nearly $90,000.

HAMLET, or AMLETH, a prince of Denmark, whose name occurs in the mediaval histories, particularly that of Saxo Grammaticus, although nothing is known of the period when he lived; some place it as early as 5 centuries B. C., others as late as A. D. 700. According to Saxo Grammaticus, he was the son of Horvendill, hereditary prince of Jutland, and of Gerutha, daughter of Roric, 15th king of Denmark after Danus. His story, as related by this author, is substantially the same as that which Shakespeare adopted as the basis of his tragedy of "Hamlet;" it was republished with some

modifications by a French writer named Belleforest, whose work, translated into English with the title of the "Historye of Hamblet," undoubtedly fell under the eye of the great dramatist. According to some historians, Hamlet was king of Denmark for several years; but the best modern authorities suppose that no such person ever existed.

HAMMARSKÖLD, LARS, a Swedish author and critic, born in Tuna, April 7, 1787, died Oct. 15, 1827. He received his degree as doctor of philosophy at Upsal in 1812, and is the author of several poetical and critical writings, the most esteemed of which are his work on the progress and development of philosophical studies in Sweden, and especially that on Swedish literature (Svenska Vitterheten, Stockholm, 1818-'19; 2d ed. revised and enlarged by Sonden, and an edition comprising the literary period between 1810 and 1832, prepared by the latter in 1833). He rendered further services to Swedish literature by preparing editions of the posthumous works of Stjernhjelm (1818), and of Stagnelius (1824-'6).

HAMMER, a tool employed for impressing the surface of bodies, moulding them into various shapes, or driving them forward. The force communicated to the bodies is the result of the momentum of the hammer, which is set in motion either by gravity, muscular action, or both combined. The tool is a weight, commonly of iron, and usually attached to the end of a handle or helve, by which it is worked. Wooden hammers are distinguished by the name of mallets. Hammers are of universal use; they are employed in all trades, and made of the greatest variety of forms and sizes. Those designed for beating down the ends of the small rivets used in jewelry may weigh but a small part of an ounce; while those employed for shaping massive work in wrought iron, as the shafts of steamboats, are made of 8 or 10 tons weight. (See FORGE.) Hammers intended to produce an effect limited to the surface of bodies, as in riveting and clipping off edges of stone, are furnished with elastic helves, which cause them immediately to rebound; but those intended to crush or affect the texture throughout of the bodies to which they are applied are furnished with stiff helves. To the smith the hammer is the most important of all tools, and he employs it in a variety of forms. A few of the principal of these are: the hand hammer, of size and weight convenient to be used with one hand; the up-hand sledge, used with both hands, but seldom raised above the head; and the about sledge, swung at arm's length with both hands at the extremity of the handle. There are numerous others with the face or striking surface adapted to produce certain forms or accomplish special effects. The hammers used in stone quarrying and mining are also of various forms, some with sharp edges for chipping, others like the blacksmith's sledge to give heavy blows, small hand hammers for driving hand drills, and the regular striking hammer or "mallet" of the Cornish miner, of

cuboidal form, weighing 7 or 8 lbs. By the Americans these were first made wholly of cast steel, instead of facing with steel after the English practice. This hammer is swung with the full force of both hands, and is used exclusively for driving the steel drills, which are held in place by another workman. Hammers are much employed for forcing metallic plates into dies, to give them the form of the die. Where a simple object, as a bolt or rivet, is to be many times repeated, half of the die or a swage tool is set in the face of the hammer and the corresponding half in the anvil, and the hammer is arranged so as to be brought down always in the same place. This is effected in the form called the lift hammer (of which the best is that known as the "Oliver"), which is worked by the foot pressing down upon a treadle. This, by a chain reaching up to a short arm of a horizontal axis, causes the arm to turn, bringing down the hammer, which with its handle constitutes a long arm of the same axis. The chain continues up to the end of a fixed horizontal spring pole, and this by its reaction turns the axis back again, raising the hammer as the pressure of the foot is taken off.-In forges and machine shops hammers are required too large and heavy to be wielded by hand. Of these several kinds are employed, as the forge or helve hammer, the tilt hammer, and the steam hammer. The first of these were formerly heavy heads of cast iron secured at one end of a strong wooden beam, which served as the shaft or helve, and which moved upon an axis at the opposite extremity from the head. The hammer was raised by cams upon a wheel re volving in such position, that these passed in succession beneath the shaft, lifting it together with the hammer. An improvement upon this was to substitute cast iron for the wooden helve, and make this the principal part of the weight of the hammer. The head is a piece forged out of wrought iron and faced with steel, fitted into the helve and secured with wedges. The pane is sometimes grooved, as is that of the anvil corresponding to it; this is for better nipping and compressing bolts of iron in the process of shingling. Such hammers and their anvils are placed upon substantial beds of tim bers, and these upon mason work of heavy stones. The hammers weigh from 4 to 10 tons or more. They are usually raised by cams fixed in the heavy iron collar of a wheel, which is set so as to revolve under the end that projects beyond the anvil, called the nose of the hammer. These raise the hammer 16 to 24 inches at the rate of 75 to 100 times in a minute. A contriv ance is provided by which the hammer is kept up whenever required. It will be noticed of the forge hammer that its face is parallel to that of the anvil only when it rests upon this; that it must in consequence of moving in a cir cular arc be applied at different angles to the body placed upon the anvil, according to the thickness of this body; and that when nearly as thick as the space through which the hammer is

lifted, the force of the blow is in great measure lost. Moreover, there is no method of regulating the pressure or adapting it to the kind of work required. A considerable part of the motive power also is lost in the gearing, and two thirds of the effect, it is stated, by the manner in which the hammer is supported; while the machinery is much in the way, being necessarily close to the hammer. These serious inconveniences are entirely done away with in the steam hammer, to be presently noticed.-Tilt hammers are of much lighter construction than the forge hammer, and are made to work with great rapidity. They are employed to advantage in giving the finish to bars of cast steel, which have been drawn down to small size from the ingots under the larger forge hammers. They are also well adapted to swaging car axles, &c. Several contrivances are in use for giving to them a rapid motion. In some the helve is extended beyond the axis of motion, so as to make there a short arm of a lever, of which the hammer end is the long arm. The short arm, describing a small arc, may be rapidly struck in succession by a large number of cams upon a wheel placed upon this end. As the short arm is thus forced down the hammer is lifted through a larger arc in the same time, and thus heavy blows are obtained in quick succession. Or, the hammer is raised by the cams lifting the shaft between the axle and the hammer, while under the short tail end is fixed a spring beam, which reacts as it is struck, throwing the hammer end violently down. The spring is also sometimes placed over the hammer head, springing it back as this is raised against it. The most perfect of all hammers, by which the objections to the forge hammer are completely obviated, and the largest pieces of iron can be forged with rapidity and accuracy, is the direct action steam hammer, invented by Mr. James Nasmith of England. The French claim its invention for M. Schneider of Creusot, who patented a machine upon the same principle, April 19, 1842, while the patent of Mr. Nasmith was effected June 9 of the same year. The hammer, however, has been generally recognized as Nasmith's. To explain this admirable piece of mechanism drawings would be essential, and without them only a general idea can be given of its character and capacity. The leading feature in the machine is the attaching of the hammer to the end of a piston rod, which works vertically as steam is let into the lower end of the cylinder above and then is allowed to escape from it. The hammer block is an oblong square mass of iron of any weight from 13 to 10 tons or more. It is grooved on its sides to work in slides upon the two massive cast iron standards which form the framing of the machine, and upon the top of which is the cap or entablature that binds the two together and supports the steam cylinder. About 6 feet above the ground the two standards spread out so as to leave abundant space between their base and the great iron anvil block imbedded between them. In the VOL. VIII.-44

centre of this block is set the anvil, directly under the pane of the hammer. The standards are bolted down upon a massive iron plate, which extends across under ground by the side of the anvil block. The lift of the hammer depends upon the length of the steam cylinder; and as this is sometimes 7 or 8 feet, blows are obtained by the heavy mass of iron falling through this distance, such as never before could be controlled for any useful purpose. The whole momentum, saving the slight loss by friction, is directed entirely to the work to be effected. The parallelism of the hammer face and the anvil face greatly facilitates the production of accurate results, while the space through which the hammer may be lifted admits of the introduction of pieces of any thickness between it and the anvil. The movements are wonderfully controlled by the simple opening and shutting of valves, the management of which involves no labor. The ponderous mass vibrates up and down, balancing upon its springy cushion of steam, now tapping gently in rapid blows, such as might serve to shape a horse-shoe nail or crack nuts without injury to the kernel, and again is lifted the whole height of the stroke by the full rush of steam under the piston, falling as the vapor is suddenly allowed to escape with a crushing force, that gives shape to the largest masses of wrought iron. To prevent the piston from being driven against the head of the cylinder, a series of holes are made around the upper part of this, which connect with the waste pipe for the escape of the steam; as the piston passes above these holes, a portion of the steam finds an outlet through them, and the air or steam that was above them becomes the most perfect elastic spring, giving a powerful impulse by its reaction to the hammer, as the upward motion of this gives place to a descending one. The efficiency of this hammer and the peculiar advantages gained by its use are well shown in its application to shingling balls from the puddling furnace. The soft glowing mass of iron brought to the hammer requires at first a comparatively gentle pressure to squeeze out the cinder from the external portion and render it more compact. The hammer is at first gently let down upon it with a slight fall, and as the iron is condensed into a more solid block, the force of the blows is increased, till the cinder and impurities are forced out from every portion. The point of greatest difficulty about the machine is in securing the piston rod to the hammer block. The inventor was aware that this joint could not be a solid unyielding one, as the piston rod itself would act as a hammer and soon destroy any of the usual modes of fastening. He formed a cylindrical recess in the top of the hammer block, placing under this a pile of bits of hard wood, which by their slight elasticity served to break the force of the blow, as the cartilage in the joints of the limbs answers a similar purpose. The lower end of the piston rod terminated in a knob or button, and when this was brought.