with C. F. Baur on the theological views of the Tübingen school. He has been since 1844 an assistant editor of the Protestantische Kirchenzeitung of Berlin, the central organ of the union, or as it is commonly called, the rationalistic party of Germany. His other works are: Des alten Pfarrers Testament (1824); Vom Justizmorde, ein Votum der Kirche (1826); Gnosis (3 vols., 1827-'9); Das Leben Jesu (1829, translated by J. F. Clarke, Boston, 1859); the second volume of Baumgarten-Crusius's Compendium_der_christlichen Dogmengeschichte (1846); Neue Propheten (the maid of Orleans, Savonarola, and the Anabaptists, 1851); Franz von Assisi, ein Heiligenbild (1856); Das geistliche Schauspiel (1858); and, under the assumed name of Karl von Steinthal, der griechische Robinson and Sachsen und seine Hoffnungen, 1830.

HASENCLEVER. I. JOHANN PETER, a German painter, born in Remscheid, Rhenish Prussia, May 18, 1810, died in Düsseldorf, Dec. 16, 1853. He was educated at Düsseldorf under Schadow, and subsequently at Munich, and is considered in Germany one of the most original and forcible of the Düsseldorf school. His department is genre, and the humorous element in his works has contributed greatly to their popularity. Among the best of them are a series entitled the "Jobsiad," which, with the "Wine Tasters" and other works, are well known through excellent lithographs. II. PETER, & German manufacturer, born in Remscheid, Nov. 24, 1716, died in Landshut, Prussian Silesia, June 13, 1792. For many years he was engaged in commercial undertakings in various parts of Europe, and subsequently to 1748 was influential in promoting the linen manufacture in Silesia. Frederic the Great had a high opinion of his business capacity, and was in the habit of consulting him on important commercial matters. In 1765 he established a house in New York for the sale of hemp, potash, and iron, and became a resident of that city, where he built a number of ships. Having become bankrupt by the mismanagement of a partner, he returned to Europe, and carried on a large linen trade in Landshut until his death. He is the author of "Letters from Philadelphia," in the correspondence of Schloezer, part 35 (1780), and of a "Description of the City of New York," in the commercial notices of Sinapius, part 4 (1781).

HASHISH. See HEMP.

HASLAM, JOHN, a British physician and writer on insanity, born in Edinburgh in 1763, died in London in July, 1844. He was educated at Cambridge, and studied medicine in London, where he became intimate with John and William Hunter. After receiving his medical degree, he was appointed apothecary to Bethlehem insane hospital, a post which he filled for many years. While here, he wrote his "Observations on Insanity," which was published in 1798. After leaving Bethlehem hospital, Dr. Haslam resided for several years at Edinburgh. In 1819 he was president of the

royal medical society and of the natural history and chemical societies of that city. Some years later he returned to London, and soon attained a large practice there; in 1827 and 1828 he delivered courses of lectures on the intellectual composition of man, which attracted great attention. During the last few years of his life he withdrew from practice. As a writer, Dr. Haslam was the master of a clear, vigorous, and attractive style. His published works are: "Observations on Insanity" (1798); "Illustrations of Madness" (1810); "Considerations on the Moral Management of Insane Persons" (1817); "Medical Jurisprudence as it relates to Insanity, according to the Law of England" (1818); "A Letter to the Governors of Bethlehem Hospital" (1818); "Essay on Sound Mind" (1819); "Lectures on the Intellectual Composition of Man" (1827-'8).

HASSAN BEN SABA. See BATENITES.

HASSE, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN AUGUST, & German author, born in Rehfeld, Jan. 4, 1773, died Feb. 6, 1848. He studied at Wittenberg, travelled in western Europe, and officiated as professor of history at the universities of Dresden and Leipsic. He wrote a history of Lombardy (Geschichte der Lombardei, Dresden, 1826-'8), and other historical and biographical works, was connected with the Conversations-Lexikon of Brockhaus as editor and contributor, and also in the latter capacity with Ersch and Gruber's cyclopædia, published in concert with several other learned men a Taschen-Encyklopädie (4 vols., Leipsic, 1816-'20), and was one of the editors of the Leipziger Zeitung from 1830 to 1846.-His eldest son, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF, born in Dresden, June 29, 1808, has been since 1848 professor of theology in Bonn, and has written, among other works, Anselm von Canterbury (2 vols., Leipsic, 1843-'52).-KARL EWALD, brother of the preceding, born June 23, 1810, since 1852 professor of clinical and special pathology at Heidelberg, has written, as a first instalment of a comprehensive work on pathology, Anatomische Beschreibung der Krankheiten der Circulations- und Respirationsorgane (Leipsic, 1841), which was translated into English in 1846.

HASSE, JOHANN ADOLF (called in Italy П Sassone, the Saxon), a German composer, born in Bergedorf, near Hamburg, March 25, 1699, died in Venice, Dec. 23, 1783. He was a pupil of Porpora and Scarlatti. His opera Sesostrate, produced at Naples in 1726, established his reputation; and after giving several other works to the Italian stage, the success of which was insured by the coöperation of his wife, the celebrated singer Faustina, he accepted the office of chapelmaster and composer to the elector of Saxony. In 1733 he was invited to London to compete with Handel, and brought out his Artaserse, in which Farinelli made his début before an English audience. Although the opera was performed 40 nights, Hasse, disgusted with the virulence of the musical cabals, left London, and about 1740 established himself in Dresden. Upon the bombardment of the city in 1760 he

was so unfortunate as to lose all his musical manuscripts, just as he was about to publish a complete collection of his works. The reverses of the elector soon after deprived the composer of his office at court, and he repaired to Vienna, where he brought out a number of works. The last years of his life were spent in Venice. Dr. Burney considered Hasse the most learned, natural, and elegant composer of his age. His works, including all the libretti of Metastasio, some of which he set in several different ways, were so numerous that it is said he often failed to recognize his own music.

HASSEL, JOHANN GEORG HEINRICH, a German statistician, born in Wolfenbüttel, Dec. 30, 1770, died in Weimar, Jan. 18, 1829. He studied at the university of Helmstedt, and received a pension from the duke of Brunswick in reward for his statistical works, which enabled him to devote himself exclusively to that science. He was employed for some time under Bertuch at Weimar, and was placed in 1809 at the head of the statistical bureau in the new kingdom of Westphalia. In 1815 he was sent by the government of Brunswick on a mission to Paris. On his return he relinquished his public office, resumed his labors under Bertuch, and after the death of the latter succeeded him as editor of the Geographische Ephemeriden. His principal work is the Lehrbuch der Statistik der Europäischen Staaten (Weimar, 1812). He was also an active contributor to Ersch and Gruber's cyclopædia, and edited in concert with Wilhelm Müller, and after his death in 1827 with Hoffmann of Jena, the 2d section of that work, comprising from H to O.

HASSELQUIST, FREDRIK, a Swedish_naturalist, born in Törnvalla, East Gothland, Jan. 3, 1722, died in Smyrna, Feb. 9, 1752. In 1741 he entered the university of Upsal, where, under the direction of Linnæus, his taste for natural science was rapidly developed. In 1747 he published a thesis entitled De Viribus Plantarum, in which he exposed the erroneous principles on which plants had previously been used in medicine, and gave the first impulse to the restoration of the old doctrine of "like forms, like virtues." His industry and ability having procured him a royal stipend to travel and study abroad, he proceeded in 1749 to the East, although warned by Linnæus that his constitution was too feeble for the journey. After visiting parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, and Palestine, he died on his way home. His collections and manuscripts, however, were subsequently received by Linnæus, who in 1757 published the results of his pupil's investigations in a work entitled Iter Palestinum, containing his journal and letters, and a variety of original remarks on the physical and social features of the countries he had traversed. This work, of which an English translation was published in 1766 (Svo., London), on account of its varied and accurate information in many departments of natural history, has not yet been superseded as a book of reference.

HASSELT, capital of the Belgian province of Limbourg and of an arrondissement of its own name; pop. of the latter in 1857, 77,832, and of the former, 9,785. It is situated on the Demer, 20 m. by rail from Maestricht, and 42 m. from Aix la Chapelle. The chief manufactures are tobacco, madder, soap, oil, linen, leather, &c. HASSENPFLUG, HANS DANIEL LUDWIG FRIEDRICH, a German statesman, born in Hanau, Hesse-Cassel, in 1793. He became minister of justice and of the interior in 1832; but being extremely unpopular on account of his illiberal policy and threatened with impeachment by the chambers, he was compelled to leave the country in 1837. He was employed by various governments, and officiated for several years in high judicial positions in Prussia; but he was charged with fraud in the rendering of his accounts, from which, however, he was afterward acquitted. In 1850 he was recalled by the elector of HesseCassel, and restored to his former position. He soon resumed his dictatorial proceedings, and paved the way for the revolution which resulted in the flight of the elector to Wilhelmsbad, in the restoration of order by the assistance of Austrian and Bavarian troops, and in the promulgation of a new constitution under the auspices of the German diet. It was mainly by his advice that the elector left Cassel and invoked the aid of the German diet against his own subjects, and he was loth to part with a minister who had served him so faithfully; but Hassenpflug's position became intolerable, and the elector consented at length in 1855 to accept his resignation, since which time he has resided at Marburg, and more recently at Goritz.

HASSKARL, JUSTUS KARL, a German traveller and naturalist, born in Cassel, Dec. 6, 1811, studied in Bonn, and went to Java in 1836, where he was employed at the botanical garden of Buitenzorg and explored the interior of the country. Returning to Europe in 1846, his poverty compelled him to accept the position of secretary of the chamber of commerce in Düsseldorf; but in 1852 he was invited by the Dutch government to resume his labors in Java. His works treat chiefly of the botany of that island. He has also written Australien und seine Colonien (Elberfeld, 1849), and translated Cole's "Notes on the Cape and the Kaffirs" into German (Leipsic, 1852).

HASSLER, FERDINAND R. See COAST SURVEY, vol. v. p. 394.

HASTINGS, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Sussex, England, 64 m. S. S. E. from London, with which it is connected by railway; pop. in 1851, 17,011. It is one of the cinque ports, and is pleasantly situated on the sea coast, being sheltered on 3 sides by hills and cliffs. It consists of an old and a new town. The trade is inconsiderable. Crowds of visitors flock to Hastings during the bathing season. Louis Napoleon, shortly before his expedition to Boulogne, lived for a few weeks at the Pelham cottage in Hastings under the name of Col. Elliot. See Miss Howard's "Hastings, Past and

Present" (London, 1856), which abounds with full and interesting details of the numerous antiquities of Hastings.-The battle of Hastings, between William of Normandy and Harold, king of the Anglo-Saxons, was fought Oct. 14, 1066, at Senlac, 9 miles from Hastings. During the previous night there were revelry and confidence in the Anglo-Saxon camp, silence and prayer in the Norman. The Normans, formidable by their cavalry and bowmen, advanced to the attack, and were met by the Anglo-Saxons with their battle axes, the Kentish men in front. The battle continued from 9 o'clock in the morning till sunset, and the Anglo-Saxons suffered severely by advancing to pursue the Normans, who feigned retreat; yet they maintained their position till Harold fell pierced by an arrow. Then their efforts immediately relaxed, and they dispersed at dusk. "The subjugation of a nation by a nation," says Macaulay, "has seldom, even in Asia, been more complete." Upon the battle field the conqueror within two years founded the "abbey of bataille," and the name of Senlac was changed to that of Battle, which the place still bears. The victorious army numbered 60,000 men, more than one fourth of whom were left on the field; the number of the vanquished and their loss are unknown.

HASTINGS, one of the most famous of the Scandinavian vikings, or sea rovers, born about 812, some say in Scandinavia, others in Normandy, others at Tranquilla (modern Trancost) on the Seine. He attached himself to the Northmen, who had established themselves on the island of Bière, and was employed by them first as a brigand for procuring supplies. His audacity, strength, and intelligence soon obtained for him an ascendency, and ultimately the chief command, both at sea and on shore. His first achievement was the devastation of the banks of the Loire (845), penetrating as far as Tours. He next undertook an expedition against Spain; but meeting a repulse at Corunna, he retraced his course toward France, sacked Bordeaux, and carried fire and sword as far as Toulouse and Tarbes. The people of the latter city celebrate to this day the anniversary of a victory gained by their forefathers over Hastings, on May 21. Refitting at the mouth of the Adour, he sailed again for the coast of Spain, took Lisbon, pillaged the city for 13 days, burned Seville, and marched upon Cordova, but was arrested by the allied forces of the Moors and Christians. Returning with reënforcements, he destroyed the great mosque of Algeciras, and compelled the Spanish king, Alfonso the Great, to seek refuge at Oviedo. Majorca, Minorca, and Provence, in their turn, became also the scenes of Hastings's incursions. The legend is that he next made a descent upon Tuscany, and then planned a voyage to Rome. Putting to sea and steering along the coast into the bay which is now known as the gulf of Spezia, he descried a city (Luna, now Luni), with towers and lofty temples. Not doubting that he was approaching Rome, he disembarked his troops, and sent ambas

sadors to say to the emperor, as he supposed, that, fresh from the conquest of France, he desired only to obtain supplies and means to refit his fleet. For himself, weary of a roving life, he sought to lay down his command and thenceforth to repose in the bosom of the Christian church. The count of Luna and the bishop came out to meet him, and administered baptism; but declined to admit him or any of his followers within the city walls. Hastings then feigned death; and a vast funeral train, passing into the city, deposited the bier before the cathedral altar. The chief then sprang up and struck the bishop to the earth; and the mourners, throwing off their long robes, cut their way back to the city gates, and let in their comrades. The city was won; and Hastings learned for the first time that he was not master of Rome. After countless exploits of almost equally desperate character he once more appeared upon the coast of Normandy. Count Robert of Anjou and the duke of Aquitaine surprised him at Brisserte, near Angers, from which place, after a furious battle, in which both the Frankish leaders were slain, Hastings ascended the Loire, plundered every town on its banks, and sailed for England to join a Danish invasion. pulsed by Alfred the Great, he reappeared upon the Loire (882), and wrung from Charles the Fat possession in perpetuity of the county of Chartres. He appears thereafter to have sought a home for his old age in Denmark; where at the age of 70 his identity is lost in the confusion of the chronicles, which attribute to him the subsequent exploits of a number of vikings who assumed his name.

Re

HASTINGS, FRANCIS RAWDON HASTINGS, marquis of, an English soldier, born Dec. 9, 1754, died in Baia bay, near Naples, Nov. 28, 1826. He was educated at Oxford, and at the age of 17 entered the army as ensign in a foot regiment. In 1773 he was sent with his regiment to America, and 2 years later, as captain in the 63d foot, participated in the battle of Bunker hill. In 1778 he was appointed adjutant-general of the British forces in North America, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. His good conduct at the battle of Monmouth in the same year procured him the command of a British corps in South Carolina, which he led at the battle of Camden (Aug. 16, 1780), and with which he subsequently defeated Greene at Hobkirk's hill. Returning to England before the close of the war on account of ill health, he was captured by a French cruiser. Soon after his release he was created Baron Rawdon and honored with several marks of distinction by the king; and in 1793 he succeeded his father as earl of Moira. In the succeeding year he commanded a body of 10,000 men sent to relieve the duke of York in Flanders, which service he successfully performed. Being a whig in politics, he was appointed master-general of the ordnance in the Grenville and Fox ministry in 1806, and after the assassination of Mr. Perceval in 1812 made an unsuccessful attempt to form a cabinet. In the same

year he was appointed governor-general of India, where he remained until 1822. The most important event of his administration was the successful termination of the Nepaul war. He was subsequently governor of Malta. In Dec. 1816, he was created Viscount Loudon, earl of Rawdon, and marquis of Hastings.

HASTINGS, WARREN, governor-general of British India, born Dec. 6, 1732, died Aug. 22, 1818. He was descended from the Hastings of Daylesford, Worcestershire, but the estate had been sold, and of all their ancient possessions, the grandfather of Warren held only the rectory of Daylesford, to which he had been presented by his father. He had two sons, Howard, a respectable man who held an office in the customs, and Pynaston, the father of Warren. Pynaston, at the age of 15, imprudently married Hester Warren, the daughter of a small farmer, and being in great poverty abandoned his native country, leaving two children to the care of his father. The rector, impoverished by a lawsuit, left Daylesford, and became curate at Churchill, where Warren was sent to the charity school of the village. In 1740, his uncle Howard having taken charge of his education, he went to a school at Newington, where he was well taught but badly fed; to the latter circumstance he was accustomed to attribute his diminutive stature and feeble health. At the age of 10 he was removed to Westminster. Here his mental powers became conspicuous, and at 14 he stood first among his competitors, and was already distinguished for ambition, resolution, and industry. Among his schoolfellows were the poets Cowper and Churchill, William Petty, after ward marquis of Lansdowne, and Elijah Impey, persons who retained for him a lasting regard. His uncle dying, he was now left dependent upon a distant relative, who, eager to be relieved of his charge, procured for him a writership in the East India company. Those who knew his talents, it is said, opposed this measure, his master Dr. Nichols offering to pay the cost of his education in England; but in Jan. 1750, he went to India. Here he at once began to study the native languages, and was one of the first to make himself familiar with the history and literature of the people among whom he now lived. He was soon noticed by Lord Clive, and was employed in various commercial and diplomatic measures. In 1756 he married the widow of Capt. Campbell, who, together with the two children she had borne him, died before his return to England. He remained in India 14 years, not distinguished in any remarkable manner, but acquiring knowledge and highly esteemed. In 1764 he arrived in England, with a moderate fortune, which was soon exhausted by his liberality to his needy relatives and his profuse generosity; he was even forced to borrow money to pay an annuity of £200 he had settled upon his aunt. His talents and his knowledge of Indian affairs soon brought him again into the

service of the company. In 1769 he was made second in the council of Madras, and in 1772 he became the highest official of the company, the president of the supreme council of Bengal. His power was next enlarged by a change made in the Indian constitution by an act of parliament, which consolidated the separate governments into one, and Hastings became (Jan. 1, 1774) governor-general of British India. The vast territory over which he ruled was composed of new conquests; the English were few in number, and their supremacy was constantly endangered by Hyder Ali, rajah of Mysore, by the Mahrattas, and by other native powers. In these dangers the administrative talent and unwearying constancy of Warren Hastings established the British empire in India. He was unscrupulous, resolute, and apparently cruel; he perhaps depopulated whole districts by his exactions, and committed acts of signal injustice. But success followed him; he defeated opposition in his council, and destroyed his Indian foes. He was not however sustained by the home administration, nor by the board of directors. Rumors of his tyranny in India were assiduously spread over England by his enemies, but the court of proprietors supported him by large majorities whenever the attempt was made to remove him from his office. Encouraged by their support, he now neglected or refused to obey the orders of the board of directors, whenever he thought them impolitic, overawed the minority of his council, and ruled with a power almost unchecked, until Feb. 1785, when he resigned his office, and set out for England, not unconscious of the danger that threatened him there. He left India, it is said, highly popular with the natives as well as the English residents, and followed by general regret. Upon his arrival in England, the opposition in parliament, led by Edmund Burke, introduced a resolution for an inquiry into his conduct, but the proceedings did not commence until the session of 1786, when Burke brought forward his articles of impeachment. Pitt, intimidated by the unpopularity of the accused, consented to the measure, and gave up Hastings to the opposition. In the impeachment Burke charged him with numerous acts of oppression, with desolating whole regions of British domain, with peculation and corruption, with exciting useless wars, and with various acts dishonoring the British name. He divided his charges into 4 heads, namely, the oppression and final expulsion of the rajah of Benares, the cruel treatment of the begums or princesses of Oude, unfair contracts, and wasteful expenditure. The sessions of 1786-'7 having been consumed in preliminary measures, the house of lords met in Westminster hall, Feb. 13, 1788, to hear the impeachment. The hall was richly adorned, and a distinguished assembly of royalty and nobility, of men of genius, of influence, and of fame, gathered to hear the trial. Hastings, frail, small, sickly, but still resolute, knelt at the bar, and then heard

Mr.

without emotion the terrible denunciations of his accusers. On the 15th Burke, in the name of the commons of England, opened the charge in a speech which lasted 3 days. He was as sisted by Fox, Sheridan, Grey, and others, and also in private by Sir Philip Francis. (See FRANCIS.) During the sessions of 1788-'90 the prosecution presented its charges. In 1791 the commons, to shorten the trial, were willing to withdraw some of the articles, and on June 2, the 73d day of the proceedings, Hastings began his defence. This continued until April 17, 1795, on which day, the 148th, he was acquitted by large majorities on each separate charge. Public opinion had turned in his favor, and his acquittal was approved by a majority of his countrymen. He convinced the nation that his measures had secured its prosperity, and showed by his poverty that he had not amassed wealth in his government. The expenses of the trial, £76,000, had consumed all his fortune, and he was now scarcely able to pay his weekly bills. In March, 1796, the East India company granted him an annuity of £4,000 for 28 years, and lent him £50,000 for 18 years without interest. He now purchased the Hastings estate at Daylesford, and retired from political life, occupying himself in rebuilding the family mansion, and in agricultural pursuits, seeking to naturalize in England the plants and animals of India. During his second voyage to India, he had become acquainted with the baron and baroness Imhoff, who were his fellow passengers. The baroness attended him during a severe sickness on shipboard, and about a year after his arrival in India, the baron having procured a divorce, his wife became Mrs. Hastings. This lady, who was accomplished and attractive, always preserved his regard, and now presided over the hospitalities of Daylesford. Hastings had long aspired to a peerage, but never received any higher public honor than an appointment as privy councillor, which took place a short time before his death. He was however treated with the most distinguished respect by both houses of parliament when in 1813 he appeared at the bar of the commons as a witness on Indian affairs. In private life Warren Hastings displayed many virtues. He was generous, unselfish, hospitable, and a steady friend. He was a good scholar, and wrote with readiness and force. He encouraged among his countrymen the study of the Indian languages and history. He was for a time president of the Asiatic society, promoted geographical research, invited learned Hindoos to settle in Calcutta, founded colleges for the instruction of the native youth, and urged upon them the necessity of becoming familiar with the language, literature, and science of England. In his political conduct he is generally allowed to have shown remarkable ability. Lord Macaulay says that he administered government and war with more than the capacity of Richelieu; and Mr. Mill, the historian of British India, thinks him the most eminent of the chief rulers of the East India company.

HAT (Saxon, hat, a cover), a covering for the head. In some form man appears to have made use of a hat to protect the head from the cold of winter, the burning rays of the sun, or against blows in battle, from the most remote periods. It was constructed in various shapes and of the greatest variety of materials, according to the purpose for which it was designed. As a part of defensive armor, the hat was the helmet, which still retains its primitive shape; as a protection from the weather, it was the cap, such as we see in the ancient figures representing the goddess of liberty. The ancient Greeks appear to have employed several other kinds of head dress, the names and appearance of which have been faithfully preserved in their writings, as well as engraved upon antique gems. Hesiod in his "Works and Days," book ii., describing a suitable dress for a farmer in cold weather, says:

Then for thy head a pilon wrought with care, Both ears enclosing, cautiously prepare; For piercing are the morning winds which blow Chill from the north and drive the falling snow. Strutt speaks of the pileus as a woollen cap, which was sometimes worn as a lining to the helmet; and he quotes several Latin authorities to show that it was adopted by the Romans at the public games and festivals, by those who had previously been slaves, and by the aged and infirm for the sake of its warmth. It is supposed to have been made of felt, in some of its forms not unlike hats of the same material that may be seen at the present day. Of a conical shape, it was the apex of the Roman priests, worn probably from the time of Numa; with an elevated crest pointed forward, like the liberty cap, it was the Phrygian or Mysian bonnet; with a brim, it became the petasus, a hat much like the round felt hats now worn. Alexander the Great wore such a hat, and Caligula permitted the people to use it at the theatre to shade their faces from the sun. (See Strutt's "Ancient Habits," introduction, p. xcv.) The helmet was an object of special regard with the warriors of ancient Greece and Troy, not only for defence, but also as an ornament; this is apparent from the descriptive epithets applied to it by Homer, some referring to the horsehair decorations of its crest, for which in after times were substituted plumes of feathers, and some to the golden decorations, which it is supposed were of fine wires of gold. The chief commanders wore them with 3 conical points, but the helmet of Agamemnon had 4. They were generally made of brass, but sometimes of leather, or even of untanned skins. Of the latter materials they were also worn without crest or cone, fitting closely to the head, and covering it completely except the face.Among the Romans the cap was regarded as a symbol of liberty, and slaves were presented with a cap on receiving their freedom. After the assassination of Cæsar coins were issued by Brutus and Cassius, on which a cap was represented between two daggers; and after Nero's