gle dorsal opposite the space between the ventrals and anal, and all with small rays at their margins-about 30 species in North America and northern and central Europe; eurynotus, a flattened and bream-shaped species, with large dorsal, ventrals, pectorals, and head; and anthodes, with lengthened body, very small scales, dorsal opposite anal, no ventrals, large pectorals, and very wide mouth, in proportions resembling the conger eel or ling. Among those most numerous in the jurassic age are tetragonolepis, with a broad flattened body, rapidly decreasing to the tail, rounded head, moderate fins, and pointed teeth-about 20 species in Europe; lepidotus, with body shaped like a carp's, large rhomboidal scales, and caudal fin almost square-about 30 species; and pholidophorus, resembling the herring, but with rhomboidal scales, homocercal or equal-lobed tail, and small teeth-more than 30 species.-In the family of cephalaspids, which contains the extreme acanth forms for a long time not recognized as fishes by paleontologists, the body and head are covered with a few non-imbricated plates or shields; the heterocercal tail, covered with imbricated scales, has no true caudal fin; and in place of pectorals are 2 long bony appendages or stilets; the dorsal cord like that of the sturgeons; they belong to the old red sandstone formation, and were short-lived in comparison with some other ganoids. The genus pterichthys (winged fish), discovered by Hugh Miller in the Cromarty sandstone, first appears at the base of the old red sandstone, and disappears with its upper beds; one of the most recent species, P. major, is the largest; it is as strange a form among fishes as the plesiosaurus and pterodactyle among reptiles; in his work on "Fossil Fishes," Prof. Agassiz says: "It is impossible to find any thing more eccentric in the whole creation than this genus." Hugh Miller describes it, when seen from the under surface, as resembling the "human figure, with the arms expanded as in the act of swimming, and the legs transformed, as in the ordinary figures of the mermaid, into a tapering tail." There is no separation between the head and trunk, and the whole animal is in a complete armor of solid bone; the strong helmet of the head is perforated in front by 2 circular holes for the eyes, the body above and below protected by a curiously plated cuirass, and the tail sheathed in a flexible mail of bony scales; the plate-covered arms are articulated by a complicated joint to the lower part of the head; the flat abdomen and ribbed and groined arch of the back add to the strength of the armature without increasing the weight-the creature resembling a "subaqueous boat, mounted on two oars and a scull;" and this strange fish is a characteristic organism of the old red sandstone. The genus coccosteus has not the pectoral appendages of the preceding animal, and the head and anterior part only of the trunk are covered with a bony helmet and cuirass, the caudal portion being naked; it has one dorsal

and one anal fin; the mouth is furnished with small, equal, conical teeth. The most remarkable peculiarity in this fish, unique among vertebrated animals as far as known, is that the jaws possessed both the usual vertical motion, and also a horizontal movement as in crustaceans, indicated by the 2 sets of teeth, one on the upper edge of the jaw and the other on the line of the symphysis, the latter of which, if brought into action at all, could only be so by the lateral movement of the jaws. The jaws of coccosteus are also interesting, as presenting the most ancient internal bone which has displayed its structure under the microscope. The jaw of this ancient fish shows the Haversian canals, the lacunæ and osseous cells, as in the bones of man at the present time; showing the extension of the great creative plan through the most distant ages, and by a fair inference to the beginning of vertebrate existence. The genus cephal aspis, or buckler-head, had a thin triangular body, and crescent-shaped head covered with a singular shield-like plate, with lateral prolongations extending along the sides; body covered by vertical rows of scales; no ventrals nor peetorals, and 2 dorsals. It lived at the same time with large placoids, armed with dorsal spines (of which the spines only remain), and with a gigantic lobster-like crustacean more than 4 feet long; it belongs to the middle portion of the old red sandstone.-The family of sauroids, of which the gar pike is one of the few living representatives, had pointed conical teeth alternating with small brush-like ones; the skeleton bony; the scales flat, rhomboidal, and completely covering the body; those living before the jurassic age had unequal-lobed tails, while the homocercal genera flourished at a more recent period. The genus megalichthys was a formidable fish of large size; the scales of the body and the plates of the head had such a brilliant enamelled surface, "that they may still be occasionally seen in the shale of a coal pit, catching the rays of the sun, and reflecting them across the landscape, as is often done by bits of highly glazed earthenware or glass." The genus diplopterus was of smaller size, with an elongated tapering body, flat head, rounded muzzle, 2 dorsals, 2 anals, and the caudal fin truncated almost vertically, the lobes coming off laterally from a prolongation of the vertebral column; their scales were of great brilliancy, and must have flashed brightly through the woods of the coal period, as they leaped into the air in sport or in pursuit of prey. The genus pygopterus had the fins greatly developed, and a heterocercal tail; aspidorhynchus had a much elongated body, homocercal tail, the upper jaw prolonged into a beak and extending beyond the lower, the scales large; the former belongs to the coal and magnesian limestone formations, and the latter to the jurassic.-The cœlacanth family is characterized by having all the fin rays and bones hollow, a peculiarity not found in other ganoids; and all the fin rays are stiff, articulated only at their bases, and sup

ported on interapophysal small bones; they occur in all the ages from the lower devonian to the chalk formations, most numerous in the red sandstone and coal strata. In the genus asterolepis, one of the earliest as well as one of the largest of the ganoids, the bony plates which covered the head are ornamented with star-like markings, and the scales of the body are delicately carved; Hugh Miller says its cranial bucklers have been found in the flag stones of Caithness, "large enough to cover the front skull of an elephant, and strong enough to have sent back a musket bullet as if from a strong wall." It must have equalled in size the largest alligator, and its teeth throughout the jaw had the reptilian peculiarity of being received into deep pits opposite, causing them when the mouth is shut to lock like the serrations of a bear trap. The genus holoptychius was of very large size, with rough scales several inches in diameter, the cranial bones sculptured like those of the crocodile, and conical teeth larger than those of any living reptile. The H. (rhizodus) Hibberti, the largest of about 20 described species, was of such a giant size that the words applied in Job to leviathan might appropriately be given to it; this reptilian fish must have been 40 feet in length, with teeth 3 times larger than those of the largest crocodile, and covered with an impenetrable coat of mail. There were several smaller holoptychians in the red sandstone, even more strongly armed than this giant of the coal period. For further details on fossil ganoids of these and other families, the reader is referred to the great work of Prof. Agassiz on "Fossil Fishes;" and for a popular description of the most interesting genera to the charming writ ings of Hugh Miller, especially the "Testimony of the Rocks,' ""Footprints of the Creator," "Old Red Sandstone," and "Popular Geology." GANS, EDUARD, a German jurist, born of Jewish parents in Berlin, March 22, 1798, died there, May 5, 1839. He studied successively in the universities of Berlin, Göttingen, and Heidelberg, and became early associated with Hegel, whose philosophical opinions he shared, and by whose influence he conceived a strong antipathy to the historical school of jurisprudence, then supported by the great names of Savigny and Hugo. He became doctor of law in 1820, resided for several years in Paris and London, and in 1826 was appointed professor of law in the university of Berlin. He soon published a work on the "Law of Inheritance in its Historical Development," in which he attacked the historical school, and aimed to treat the science of law according to the principles of the Hegelian philosophy. His clear and vivacious manner of lecturing was strikingly in contrast with the monotonous gravity usual in German universities, and gained for him crowded audiences. He began a course in 1835 upon the history of the last 50 years, but was obliged by the government to suspend it. He was one of the founders in 1826 of the Berliner Jahrbücher, and has left many works on juridical, historical, political, and

æsthetic subjects. He was among the most active of those who prepared the posthumous edition of the complete works of Hegel, and the "Philosophy of History" was really the work of Gans, since Hegel left only its introduction. GANSEVOORT, PETER, an American officer, born in Albany, July 17, 1749, died July 2, 1812. In 1775 he received the appointment of major in the 2d New York regiment, and joined the army which under Montgomery invaded Canada. In March, 1776, he was made a lieutenant-colonel, and at a later period of the same year he was appointed to the command of Fort George. In 1777 he was placed in command of Fort Stanwix, which he gallantly defended against a vigorous siege of 20 days by British and Indians under St. Leger, and received the thanks of congress for having thereby prevented the cooperation of that general with Burgoyne, and contributed to the defeat of the latter. In 1781 the state of New York raised him to the rank of brigadier-general, which he held till the termination of the war. He afterward filled various important offices under the federal government. He was successively commissioner of Indian affairs, commissioner for fortifying the frontiers, and military agent. In 1809 he was appointed brigadier-general in the U. S. army.

GANYMEDE, & Trojan prince, son of Tros and brother of Ilus, was the most beautiful of mortals, and was carried off, according to the legend, by the eagle of Jupiter, to succeed Hebe as cup-bearer to the gods on Olympus. Astronomers have placed him among the constellations under the name of Aquarius, or the waterbearer. He is represented in the fine group of statuary in the Pio-Clementine museum at Rome, and in the group of "Hebe and Ganymede" by Crawford, at Boston.

GAR FISH, or GAR PIKE (lepidosteus), a ganoid fish, belonging to the same order as the polypterus of Africa, the mud fish (amia) of America, and the sturgeon family; it is the only genus of its family, and there are more than 20 species, all American. As in other ganoids, the body is covered with smooth enamelled scales, of a rhombic form, arranged in oblique rows, and so hard that it is impossible to pierce them with a spear; this enamel is like that of teeth, and the scales contain the fluorine and lacunæ of ordinary bone structure. The internal skeleton is bony; the snout is elongated, varying in width according to the species; both jaws and nasal bone are covered with small teeth, with long and pointed ones along the edge; the teeth are in double rows of unequal size, the larger resembling those of reptiles, and the smaller fish-like, the front ones of the lower jaw being received into sheath-like cavities in the upper, as in the alligators; their structure resembles that of the labyrinthodont reptiles, having processes of the pulp cavity radiating toward the circumference; the vertebræ also present a reptilian arrangement in having ball and socket articulations, the anterior surface of each bone being convex and the posterior concave; this

gives greater flexibility to the spine, and enables this genus (alone among fishes) to move the head independently of the trunk, and also to retain the posterior part of the body in a curved position. The gills on the 4 arches have a perfect bifoliate structure, and behind the last and the hyoid bone there is the usual fissure; there is a respiratory opercular gill as well as a pseudobranchia, but no blow-hole; branchiostegal rays 3, the membrane passing from side to side, undivided. The anterior edge of all the fins is protected by hard spiny scales, and all the fin rays are articulated; the dorsal and anal fins are far back, and nearly opposite one another; the caudal fin is abruptly truncated, and its rays are inserted partly at the end of and partly beneath the extremity of the spine. There are the usual numerous valves in the arterial bulb, no decussation of the optic nerves, and abdominal ventral fins; the stomach is continued without cæca to a slender twice-folded intestine, which has a slightly developed spiral valve, but numerous pancreatic cæca; the long air or swim bladder is muscular, freely supplied with blood from the aorta, divided into cells like the lung of a reptile by muscular bundles, and opening into the throat by a wide duct and long slit guarded by a sphincter muscle; the ovaries are sacciform, with oviducts issuing from their middle. Gar fish are not uncommon in the western rivers and northern lakes communicating with the gulf of Mexico and the St. Lawrence, and probably every separate basin and watershed has its peculiar species; Prof. Agassiz has determined 10, 5 pointed-nosed and 5 shortnosed. They frequent shallow, reedy, or grassy places, basking in the sun like the pike, and devouring living prey with great voracity. The manner of seizing prey differs from that usually observed in fishes, and resembles that of reptiles; instead of taking their food at once with open mouth and swallowing it immediately, they approach it slily and sideways, and then, suddenly seizing the fish or other animal, hold it until by a series of movements it is placed in a proper position for being swallowed, in the manner of alligators and lizards; the ball of food is also seen to distend the body as it passes downward, as in snakes. This reptilian fish, like the ichthyoid reptiles, is in the habit of approaching the surface of the water, and of apparently swallowing air; at any rate, a large amount of air escapes from the mouth, most of which had probably been previously swallowed, and a part of which may have been secreted by the lung-like air bladder. As in the menobranchus and other fish-like salamanders, this air bladder doubtless performs certain respiratory functions, and perhaps more than in the naked-skinned reptiles; at any rate gar pikes live longer out of water than fishes generally, and to a degree not explicable by any arrangement of the gills. The gar pike and the African polypterus (described below) are the only two existing genera of a type of sauroid fishes which were very numerous in the secondary geological epoch, extend

ing also in diminished numbers through the palæozoic age at a time when reptiles proper did not exist; they are found from the lower silurian strata to the present time, gradually diminishing through the tertiary to the 2 existing genera; they present one of the first steps in the geological succession of bony fishes, at a time when the ctenoids and cycloids had not appeared; after the rhizodont reptiles and the common osseous fishes were created, the ganoids (which Agassiz is disposed to elevate into a class) began to diminish. The common gar fish (L. osseus, Linn.), called also bony pike and Buffalo fish, attains a length of 5 feet. The color is umber brown on the back and head, the sides yellow, and the belly white; there are circular black spots on the caudal, dorsal, and anal fins. It is found in Lakes Erie, Huron, and Champlain, the Ohio and its tributaries, and other western rivers. The great length of its jaws will distinguish it from other species; it is often seen apparently sleeping on the surface, and gently carried round in an eddy for an hour at a time; it leaps often out of water in pursuit of its prey, and is so swift and strong a swimmer as to stem the most furious rapids. The alligator gar fish (L. ferox, Raf.) has a shorter head, the jaws forming not quite half the length, broad and flat above; the skin is rough, the scales imbricated and sculptured; teeth numerous, strong, and prominent; the upper jaw, as in the preceding species, expanding into a knob at the end; the color is yellowish brown. It inhabits the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and their tributaries, and is usually from 4 to 6 feet long; according to Rafinesque, it attains a length of 12 feet, and is a match for an alligator; its impervious coat of mail, strong teeth, size, strength, and agility must make it a very formidable fish, though probably not superior to the equally well armed and powerful alligator. It may be well called the shark of fresh water, though not belonging to the placoid group of fishes. A smaller, less common, and flat-headed species is the duck-bill gar (L. platostomus, Raf.), found in the western waters; the jaws are shorter, wider, and flatter than in the common gar, and longer and more tapering than in the alligator gar; the head and back are dusky and umber, sides yellowish, abdomen white, iris golden yellow, the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins spotted; a series of obscure circular spots on the median line behind the anal. The length is from 2 to 5 feet. There are several other species described, more or less resembling the above; but these will serve to give an idea of the general characters of this singular fish, the living type of the dominant family of its class during the carboniferous period.-The allied genus polypterus (Geoffr.), from the Nile, Senegal, and other African rivers, is characterized by similar enamelled scales, and by a number of finlets extending from the middle of the body to the tail; the throat is covered with hard, nearly immovable plates, which would greatly embarrass respiration were it not for 2 openings

By her 16th year her voice became fixed, resembling in its double register of contralto and soprano that of her sister, but more flexible, and comprising a compass of 3 octaves. In May, 1839, she made her début in London in Rossini's Otello, and subsequently in Paris, achieving a decided triumph in each instance. In the succeeding spring she was married to M. Viardot, a journalist of Paris. She sang there the next season with increased effect, reviving many recollections of her sister, and for 7 years appeared in Vienna, St. Petersburg, and Berlin, returning to London in 1848. Since that time she has confined herself chiefly to London and Paris; and in July, 1859, she accepted an engagement at the théâtre lyrique to make her début in Orphée. Her principal parts are Desdemona, Cenerentola, Rosina, Arsace, Norma, Lucia, Leonora, Donna Anna, Iphigenia, Valentine, and more particularly Fides in Meyerbeer's Prophète, a part which she may be said to have created, and in which she has never been surpassed. Her dramatic genius is of the first order, and her stage abstraction is so perfect that the actress is lost in the character she is personating. Her versatility is indicated by the wide range of characters she has assumed.

GARCILASSO DE LA VEGA. I. A Spanish lyric and pastoral poet, born at Toledo in 1503, died at Nice in Nov. 1536. His father, who was descended from an ancient family in the north of Spain, was councillor of state to Ferdinand and Isabella, and for some time their ambassador at Rome; his mother, the daughter and sole heir of Fernan Perez de Guzman, belonged to one of the most illustrious families of Spain. At an early age Garcilasso, who had been trained to arms, entered the service of the emperor Charles V. He was in the campaign in the Milanese in 1521, and distinguished himself by his valor at the battle of Pavia in 1525. In 1530 he married Donna Helena de Zuniga, an Aragonese lady; and in 1532 he was at Vienna, where he displayed his courage in battle with the Turks who had invaded Austria under the sultan Solyman. At Vienna, however, he incurred temporarily the displeasure of the empress by promoting the marriage of one of his nephews with a lady of the imperial household, and he was in consequence imprisoned on an island in the Danube, where he wrote a poem contrasting his own desolate situation with the beauty of the surrounding scenery. He was soon released and taken into greater favor than ever. In 1535 he accompanied the emperor on the expedition to Tunis, in which he was severely wounded in the head and arm. On his return to Spain by way of Sicily and Naples he wrote an elegy at the foot of Mount Etna. In the succeeding year he followed the emperor in the disastrous invasion of the south of France. The Spanish army on its retreat was greatly annoyed by the peasantry, 50 of whom posted themselves in a small castle on a hill near Fréjus. The emperor ordered the castle to be stormed. Garcilasso, who commanded a brigade of 30 companies headed

the assault sword in hand, and was the first to mount the wall. He had rashly neglected to wear his helmet, and in the moment of triumph was struck on the head by a stone and fell into the ditch beneath. He was carried to Nice, where he died 24 days afterward. The emperor cruelly avenged the death of his favorite by hanging all the brave defenders of the castle. Garcilasso left an only son, who fell in battle against the Dutch in 1569. Garcilasso's poems were found by the widow of his friend the poet Boscan among her husband's papers, and published with them. "Their character is singular," says Mr. Ticknor, in his "History of Spanish Literature," "considering the circumstances under which they were written; for instead of betraying any of the spirit that governed the main course of their author's adventurous life and brought him to an early grave, they are remarkable for their gentleness and melancholy, and their best portions are in a pastoral tone, breathing the very sweetness of the fabulous ages of Arcadia. They consist of 37 sonnets, 5 canzones, 2 elegies, an epistle in versi sciolti, less grave than the rest of his poetry, and 3 pastorals. His poetry from the first sank deep into the hearts of his countrymen. His sonnets were heard everywhere; his eclogues were acted like popular dramas. The greatest geniuses of his nation express for him a reverence they show to none of his predecessors. Lope de Vega imitates him in every possible way; Cervantes praises him more than he does any other poet, and cites him oftener. And thus Garcilasso has come down to us enjoying a general admiration, such as is hardly given to any other Spanish poet, and to none that lived before his time." The best edition of Garcilasso's poems was published at Madrid in 1765, edited, though it appeared anonymously, by the chevalier Joseph Nicolas de Azara. There is an English translation with a life and an essay on Spanish poetry by J. H. Wiffen (London, 1823). II. A Spanish soldier, and one of the conquerors of Peru, born in Badajoz, died in Cuzco in 1559. He was of the same family with the preceding, and went to Mexico with Pedro de Alvarado, whom he afterward followed in his invasion and conquest of Guatemala. When Alvarado in 1534 invaded the kingdom of Quito, Garcilasso went with him as captain of a company of infantry, and after Alvarado's return to Guatemala remained in Peru and attached himself to the fortunes of Francisco Pizarro, and after his death to those of his brother Gonzalo. He distinguished himself greatly in the contest with the Peruvians and in the civil war that followed the death of Francisco Pizarro. He supported for some time Gonzalo Pizarro in his rebellion against the royal authority; but in the decisive battle of Xaquixaguana, April 9, 1548, he rode over to the royal side at the turning point of the contest, was received with pardon and favor by the viceroy, and appointed governor of Cuzco, an office he held till his death, which, unlike that of most of the companions of Pizarro, took place