in his bed and not by violence. Garcilasso was noted for his humanity to the Indians, and for the effort he made to ameliorate their condition. He married an Indian princess of the blood royal, the niece of Huayna Capac, and granddaughter of the renowned Tupac inca Ynpauqui. III. Surnamed the Inca, a Spanish historian, son of the preceding, born in Cuzco in 1540, died in Cordova, Spain, in 1616. His early years were passed in Peru, where he was educated in the Roman Catholic religion. In 1560 he went to Spain, where he ever afterward resided. He entered the army, and served as a captain under Don John of Austria, in the war with the Moriscoes. After the war ended he retired to Cordova, and devoted himself to writing American history. His first work, a "History of Florida," appeared in 1605. It is chiefly devoted to the adventures of Fernando de Soto. In 1609 he published the first part of his great work, the "Commentaries on Peru," relating the history of that country under the incas. In 1616, a few months before his death, he finished the second part, comprising the story of the conquest by the Spaniards. It was published at Cordova the following year. His work gives by far the fullest account of Peru under its native kings, and is in fact the source of almost all our knowledge upon the subject. The author was proud of his descent from the incas, and obtained much of the material for his history from his mother's family. His "Commentaries" are interesting and valuable, though they contain much that is mere gossip and not a little fable. They have been translated into many languages. An English translation, in 1 vol. fol., by Sir Paul Rycaut, knight, was published at London in 1688, which, though containing numerous errors, is still a favorite with book collectors.

GARD, a maritime department of France, on the Mediterranean, and on the W. bank of the Rhone, near its mouth; area, 2,256 sq. m.; pop. in 1856, 419,697. It derives its name from a small river which rises in the Cévennes, runs through its centre, and falls into the Rhone a few miles above its delta. The Cévennes mountains send ramifications to its centre, while in the S. E. there is a considerable extent of level country, broken by pools and marshes. Iron, argentiferous lead, antimony, zinc, and manganese are mined; coal mines also are wrought, and there are valuable salt marshes on the coast. The arable lands, which comprise scarcely onefourth of the department, are generally of indifferent quality, and agriculture is backward. The wines are highly esteemed, and olives are grown; but the culture of the mulberry is of paramount importance. Other fine fruits are also abundant. This department ranks among the most industrious in France, and is especially distinguished for its manufactures of silk, beside which it has cotton and woollen mills, tanneries, distilleries, and soap-making establishments. Capital, Nîmes.

GARD, PONT DU, an aqueduct bridge, built over the river Gard, 10 m. N. E. of Nîmes, and one of VOL. VIII.-6

the most celebrated relics of Roman power in France. It consists of 3 tiers of arches, one above the other, its entire height being 156 feet from the level of the water. The undermost range consists of 6 arches, through the widest of which the river flows; the middle has 11, and the uppermost 35. This supports a covered canal about 5 feet high and 2 feet wide, which was part of the aqueduct that formerly brought the waters of the Aire and Aure to Nîmes, and other portions of which still remain. The irregular disposition of the arches adds greatly to the picturesque beauty of the structure, which is some 850 feet long. On the invasion of the barbarians, it was partly destroyed; but it is still an object of curiosity and admiration.

GARDA, LAKE (anc. Benacus Lacus), the largest of the Italian lakes, situated on the boundary between Lombardy and Venice, between lat. 45° 26′ and 45° 54′ N. and long. 10° 33' and 10° 54′ E. It is 33 m. in length from N. to S., and from 3 to 11 m. in breadth. It is 213 feet above the level of the sea. At its N. extremity the Sarca and some smaller streams discharge their waters into it, while its surplus waters are conveyed to the Po by the Mincio, which issues from its S. E. extremity. It is famous for its fish, especially sardines, the most important, and carp, some of which weigh 80 lbs. Garda, the village from which it takes its name, stands on the E. shore, and was formerly a place of some note.

GARDAIA, or GHARDEIA, a town of Algeria, in the province of Algiers, situated in the oasis of Wady-Nizab, in the Sahara, lat. 31° 57' N., long. 2° 50' E. It is well fortified, having a wall with battlements and 9 large towers, each of which is capable of holding from 300 to 400 men. Ten gates give entrance to the town, which contains a

mosque of vast size and 5 smaller ones, beside a Jewish synagogue. The government is nominally administered by a national assembly, presided over by a chief, but the latter is little more than the mouthpiece of the high priest, whose advice has all the force of law. A flourishing trade is carried on with Tunis, Algiers, Bou Sada, &c., in corn, butter, groceries, oil, pottery, and negro slaves. The suburbs of the town contain extensive vineyards and orchards. Rain is almost unknown, but there are numerous wells, some of which are 900 feet deep. On a neighboring eminence are the remains of a large tower supposed to have been built by the Romans. The oasis in which Gardaia is situated submitted to French rule in 1853.

GARDEN. See HORTICULTURE.

GARDEN, ALEXANDER, a British physician and naturalist, born in Scotland in 1728, died in London in 1792. He studied philosophy in the university of Aberdeen, and medicine under Dr. John Gregory, and emigrated to South Carolina near the middle of the century. He acquired a fortune by the practice of physic in Charleston, and a high reputation by his studies in botany and other sciences. In 1754 he declined a professorship in the college recently es

tablished in New York city. He was a correspondent of Linnæus, who gave the name of Gardenia to one of the most beautiful and fragrant of flowering shrubs. He published accounts of the pink root (spigelia Marilandica), of the helesia, of the male and female cochineal insects, of the mud inguana, or siren of South Carolina, an amphibious animal, of 2 new species of tortoises, and of the gymnotus electricus. Returning to England in 1783 on account of his health, he became one of the vice-presidents of the royal society, of which he had before been

elected a member.

GARDEN, ALEXANDER, an officer of the American revolution, in Lee's famous legion, died in Charleston, S. C., about 1825, at an advanced age. He was for a time aide-de-camp to Gen. Greene. He wrote "Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War in America, with Sketches of Character of Persons the most distinguished in the Southern States for Civil and Military Services" (1st series, Charleston, 1822; followed by a second series), which is one of the authorities for the history of the period, containing information hardly to be found elsewhere.

GARDINER, a city of Kennebec co., Me., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12 m. below Augusta, at the head of summer navigation, and on both sides of the Cobbossecontee; pop. in 1850, 6,486, since which time a part of its territory has been incorporated with other townships. It is largely engaged in manufactures, for which the falls of the Cobbossecontee afford great advantages, and it contains 6 saw, shingle, lath, and clapboard mills, 2 large paper mills, a woollen factory, a foundery, 2 machine shops, 3 tanneries, a pottery, and 2 grist mills. There are 10 churches (2 Baptist, 1 Christian, 1 Congregational, 1 Episcopal, of which the bishop of the diocese of Maine is rector, 1 Freewill Baptist, 1 Methodist, 1 Ro'man Catholic, 1 Swedenborgian, and 1 Universalist), a high school, a newspaper office, 3 banks with an aggregate capital of $250,000, an alms house, and a mechanics' association with a small library. The mansion of Robert Hallowell Gardiner, which is within the limits of the city, is one of the most magnificent in the state. About 6,000 tons of shipping are owned here, one-half of which is employed in the southern and foreign trade. A bridge 900 feet long connects Gardiner with Pittston on the opposite bank of the Kennebee. The Kennebee and Portland railroad passes through the city. GARDINER, JAMES, a Scottish soldier, born in Carriden, Linlithgowshire, Jan. 11, 1688, killed Sept. 20, 1745. At the age of 14 he obtained a commission in the Dutch service. He afterward entered the English army, and was present at the battle of Ramillies. In 1730 he was made lieutenant-colonel, and in 1745 commanded a regiment at the battle of Prestonpans, where he was slain, The author of " Waverley" describes the manner of his death with all the minuteness of historical detail and all the embellishments

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of romance. In his youth he led a dissipated and reckless life, but in his latter days he became an exemplar of Christian piety and worth. His life has been written by Dr. Doddridge.

GARDINER, STEPHEN, an English Roman Catholic prelate, born at Bury St. Edmund's, in 1483, died Nov. 12, 1555. He was educated at Cambridge, became secretary of Wolsey, and was soon in high favor with Henry VIII. In 1527 he was sent to Italy to procure the pope's consent to the divorce of Queen Catharine. His mission proved unsuccessful, but while at Rome he rendered important services to Wolsey. On his return he was intrusted with the conduct of the divorce case, and successively made secretary of state and (in Nov. 1531) bishop of Winchester. He endeavored to convince the king of the impolicy of breaking with the pope, and of the propriety of punishing those who denied the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist. The downfall of Cromwell, who had succeeded Wolsey as favorite, added for a time to the influence and power of Gardiner. But the king began at length to lean toward the reformers, and the refusal of Henry to permit the arrest of Catharine Parr for religious contumacy, demonstrated the decline of that prelate's power. On the accession of Edward VI., Gardiner, refusing to approve of the articles and injunctions issued by the new council, was committed first to the Fleet prison, and then, after a short release and new provocation, to the tower, where he was confined till the reign of Mary, when he was restored to liberty and raised to still greater power than ever, being made lord chancellor. The Protestant persecution which took place during his administration has been generally ascribed by Protestant writers to his counsel, but according to Lingard, "more from conjecture and prejudice, than from real information." He is said to have exclaimed on his deathbed: Erravi cum Petro, sed non flevi cum Petro (“I have erred with Peter, but I have not wept with Peter")

GARDINER, SYLVESTER, an American physician, born in Kingston, R. I., in 1717, died in Newport, R. I., Aug. 8, 1786. He studied medicine in London and Paris, subsequently practised his profession in Boston, and opened there a drug establishment, from which the New England colonies were chiefly supplied. He was one of the early promoters of inoculation for the small pox, and a liberal contributor for the erection of King's chapel, Boston. He became possessed of large tracts of land in Kennebec co., Me., and about the middle of the century was instrumental in establishing there the settlement of Pittston, a portion of which was subsequently set off into a separate town, under the name of Gardiner, where he built and endowed Christ church. He retired from Boston on its evacuation by the British troops, but returned to the United States at the close of the revolutionary war, and passed the rest of his life here.-JOHN, son of the preceding, an American advocate, born in Boston

Returning to Nice to his mother, wife, and children, his repose was but short. In the autumn he went to Bologna, where, though the people wanted him, the papal government rejected him. On the flight of the pope the new executive gave to Garibaldi a command, sending him to watch the Neapolitan frontier near Rieti, in which situation he remained till the spring of 1849, when the first act of Avezzana, the new minister of war, was to call Garibaldi to Rome and adequately arm and provide for his men. The French expedition to restore the pope having appeared before Rome on April 30 (8,000 infantry, 2 squadrons of cavalry, and 12 guns), Garibaldi was, with 1,200 men, posted in some villas outside the gates. Notwithstanding the disparity of numbers, he attacked the right wing of the French, when Avezzana, who commanded in chief, seeing from the city wall the peril of the Italians, despatched 1,500 men to his succor; whereupon Garibaldi charged the French so vigorously with the bayonet as completely to break them, pursued them several miles, and returned with 300 prisoners. The Neapolitans now threatened Rome, and these were twice beaten by Garibaldi, at Palestrina and Velletri. The French, strongly reenforced, having on June 30 gained a footing inside the wall, the republican triumvirate abdicated. In this moment of general depression Garibaldi resolved to continue the struggle in the open country, and consequently he issued the following proclamation: "In recompense for the love you may show your country I offer you hunger, thirst, cold, war, and death; who accepts these terms, let him follow me." He left Rome to try to penetrate to Venice with about 4,000 men, of whom 800 were mounted, and marching by Tivoli to Terni met the second Italian legion, which was awaiting him. Thence he took to the left to avoid an Austrian corps, but lost many men at Orvieto by a French column. The population was favorable, but being disheartened remained passive; the enemy in immensely superior numbers was fearful and over cautious, and never accepted a general engagement. Garibaldi displayed a wonderful talent in advantageously posting his men at every halt (never in a city), and in so adroitly manoeuvering as to extricate himself and leave his enemy behind him every time he appeared to be surrounded. At St. Angelo in Vado some detachments in the city were cut off, which was the only serious loss he sustained. On July 30 he reached San Marino, his force being reduced to 1,800 men, and there he found in his front a fresh Austrian army in addition to the 13,000 pressing on his rear. Terms were now offered, to the effect that there should be a general amnesty and all should return home, the arms being surrendered to the republic of San Marino. Such conditions would have been accepted had a few French belonging to the second legion been permitted to return to Switzerland; but as it was insisted that they should be sent to Rome, where the French

might maltreat them, the offer of the Austrians was rejected without hesitation, and at night about half the force (the rest chose to surrender) made their way toward Cesena; and though vigorously pursued, the remnant, 290 in number, embarked from Cesenatico in some fishing boats on Aug. 2. Making their way toward Venice (then besieged) with the intention of eluding the blockading squadron, the little band was toward nightfall descried by the Austrian fleet in the Adriatic, and the small craft of the patriots were scattered during the night, some captured, and others run ashore. In the boat with Garibaldi were his wife and a few of the most compromised, Ugo Bassi, Ciceroacchio, &c.; and these gained the shore and dispersed in twos and threes to avoid the vigilance of the pursuit. Two days later Anna Garibaldi, who had refused to leave her husband, being worn out by fatigue, died, leaving Garibaldi oppressed with grief. In this state of utter wretchedness, with nothing but his indomitable courage to sustain him, he made his way from the east to the west coast of Italy, while the punishment of death was decreed for whosoever gave him bread, water, or shelter. From Tuscany he embarked for Spezia, and at Chiavari in the states of Sardinia he was arrested and conducted to Genoa. Banished from the states of Sardinia, he arrived at New York in the summer of 1850, declined the public reception offered him, and earned a living by making candles in a manufactory on Staten island till an opportunity occurred of resuming the occupation of a mariner. He made some voyages in the Pacific, and in about 3 years returned to New York in command of a Peruvian bark. Having lost his mother, to whom he had confided the care of his 3 children, he accepted the invitation to return to Nice, where he lived in retirement. In the beginning of 1859, on the breaking out of the war with Austria, he was invited by the Sardinian government to form a corps, since celebrated as the "Hunters of the Alps" (Catciatori delle Alpi). Detached from the rest of the army, he crossed over on its extreme left into northern Lombardy, with a comparatively small force, beat several Austrian detachments, entered, the foremost of the allies, Varese, Lugano, Como, Bergamo, and Brescia, and rendered the most important services to the Italian cause throughout the war.

GARLAND, HUGH A., an American author and politician, born in Virginia, June 1, 1805, died in St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 14, 1854. He was graduated at Hampden Sidney college in 1825, and in 1826 was chosen professor of Greek in that institution. He studied law, and in 1880 resigned his professorship, and in the following year began to practise at the bar in Mecklenburg county. For 5 years he was a member of the Virginia legislature, and actively supported the democratic party. In 1838 he was chosen clerk of the house of representatives at Washington. In 1839, when the house met, Dec. 2, it was found that there were present 119 demo

crats and 118 whigs, beside 5 whigs from New Jersey whose seats were contested. Their admission to vote for speaker would have secured to the whigs the organization of the house. In accordance with custom, Mr. Garland, as clerk of the last house, opened the session by calling the roll of members. When he came to New Jersey he called one member whose seat was not contested, and said he should pass over the other 5, as he did not feel authorized to decide whether or not they were entitled to seats. This gave rise to a great uproar and confusion, which lasted till Dec. 5, when it was terminated by the interposition of John Quincy Adams, and his election as chairman pro tempore. In 1841 Mr. Garland returned to Virginia, and settled on a farm near Petersburg. Engaged unsuccessfully in mercantile business, he lost nearly all his property, and in 1845 he went to St. Louis, and resumed practice as a lawyer. At the time of his death he held a high rank at the bar. Mr. Garland was the author of a "Life of John Randolph” (2 vols. 8vo., New York, 1850).

GARLIC, the bulb of the allium sativum, a plant of the same genus as the onion (A. cepa) and the leek (4. porrum). The plant is perennial, and grows wild in the southern parts of Europe. In most other countries it is cultivated, and has been esteemed from the remotest times as an article of food or as a condiment, and also for the sake of its medicinal qualities. The bulbs, 5 or 6 in number, are found clustered around the base of the stem, enclosed in a common membranous covering, by which they are concealed from view. They are taken up attached to the stem, and when dried in the sun are tied together in bunches like onions. The small bulbs are called cloves of garlic. They are of oblong shape, of the strong peculiar odor called alliaceous, and have a bitter and acrid taste. A highly viscid juice may be expressed from them, so tenacious that when dried it makes a cement for porcelain. By distilling the bulbs with water a very volatile essential oil is obtained, which possesses in a high degree the peculiar properties of the bulbs. It is of so acrid a nature that it will even raise blisters upon the skin. Sulphur is detected in this oil combined with a radical called allyle, consisting of C. Hs. When garlic is used as food or medicine, this oil is rapidly absorbed, and its presence is soon perceived in the breath and in the secretions of the body. It is so penetrating, that when garlic is externally applied, as to the soles of the feet, the smell is said to be observed in the breath and perspiration. Its moderate use is thought to be beneficial for its stimulant properties in quickening the circulation, exciting the nervous system, &c. As a medicine it is most employed in external applications, as a sedative in fevers, and in nervous and spasmodic disorders of children.

GARNET, the name of a mineral species, presenting many varieties; also applied by Dana to designate a section of the silicates; and in

geology it is the name of a rock made up of some variety of the mineral. The garnet is supposed to have been sometimes included by the ancients in their names carbunculus and hyacinthus. In its more perfect forms it is a gem, and when cut and polished bears some resemblance to the ruby in color, transparency, and lustre. Some of the precious varieties are distinguished by the names Syrian and oriental, and also almandine, from Alabanda, the place where, in the time of Pliny, they were cut and polished. These and the black varieties also have been much used in Europe, strung together like beads for necklaces. Those most esteemed in jewelry are obtained from Ceylon, Pegu, and Greenland. A single crystal of only 8 lines by 6 has been sold for about $700. Its crystals are rhomboidal and trapezoidal dodecahedrons and variously modified forms. Its hardness is from 6.5 to 7.5; specific gravity 3.15 to 4.3. It is met with of various colors, as red, brown, black, yellow, white, and green, and with a vitreous or resinous lustre. According to its composition it has been divided into 6 subspecies, all of which pass into one another by insensible shades of difference; they are all silicates of different protoxides or peroxides; as: 1, the alumina-lime garnet, a silicate of alumina and lime, of which the cinnamon stone or essonite is an example; 2, the alumina-magnesia garnet; 3, the alumina-iron garnet, a silicate of the protoxide of iron and lime, as almandine and a variety of the common garnet; 4, alumina-manganese garnet, called also manganesian garnet; 5, iron-lime garnet, composed of silicates of the peroxide of iron and of lime, as the black garnet and a variety of the common garnet; 6, lime-chrome garnet, as the emerald green ouvarovite of Russia. The silicic acid in these varies from 34 to 44 per cent. Their composition is represented by the general formula 3RO, SiO3, R2 O,, SiO3, in which RO represents either one of the protoxides that may be present, and R. O, either the alumina (Al, Os), or the peroxide of iron (Fe2 O.), or of chrome (Cr2 O3). Garnets are easily melted by the blowpipe; and some varieties, as the melanite or black garnet, found in the lavas of Vesuvius, appear to be a direct product of the fusion of their ingredients. The ironlime garnets, of which this is a variety, containing from 20 to 30 per cent. of peroxide of iron, and about the same proportion of lime, might be advantageously employed both as iron ore and flux in the manufacture of iron, mixed with other ores more rich in iron and deficient in silica. They frequently occur in the vicinity of iron ores, and in beds of great extent, forming a true garnet rock, and from their highly ferruginous appearance have in some instances been mistaken for iron ores; though when worked they have been condemned from their true character not being understood. Garnet of this character is found in the highlands on the west side of the Hudson river, containing by analyses of two varieties by Dr. A. A. Hayes: