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Distinguish between the classical and the Teutonic elements in English. Point out the several ways in which words of Latin origin have been introduced into the language. The pronouns, numerals, prepositions, conjunctions, irregular adjectives, strong and auxiliary verbs-"the names of the elements and their changes, of the seasons, the heavenly bodies, the divisions of time, the features of natural scenery-the organs of the body, the modes of bodily action and posture-the commonest animals-the words used in earliest childhood-the ordinary terms of traffic-the constituent words proverbs-the designation of kindred-the simpler emotions of the mind-terms of pleasantry, satire, contempt, indignation, invective, and anger," are for the most part Teutonic. Words which in their meaning indicate a variety of feelings, and deeper thoughts, scientific terms, and words required for the interchange of thought by an advanced civilization, are of Latin origin. These last have been introduced into the language as follows:-(1) A few during the Roman occupation of Britain; (2) when Christianity was introduced, A.D. 596; (3) at the Norman conquest, through the NormanFrench; (4) at the revival of classical learning in the sixteenth century; (5) in modern times, as the advance of science and art required new terms. 3. Define the terms "vowel," " diphthong," "consonant." What letters are called "mutes," and how are they subdivided? Tell the substance of Grimm's Law. A vowel is the sound produced when the air is not interrupted in its passage outwards. A diphthong is the combination of two vowels in a word. A consonant is the sound produced when the air is interrupted wholly or partially by the organs of speech in its passage outwards. When the air-tube is entirely closed in producing a sound, it is called a mute. The mutes are subdivided according to the organs of speech employed in their expression. Labials, p, b, f, v; dentals, t, th, d; gutturals, k, ch, g, gh. Grimm's Law states that when a word passes from one language to another it undergoes a change in form characteristic of the language into which it is introduced. 4. Describe the several ways of indicating gender in English nouns, including explanations of the words "woman," "lady," "vixen," " seamstress," "mistress," "bridegroom," "widower," "drake." Gender is indicated in English (a) by a different word, (b) by a prefix, (c) by a suffix. Woman (A.S., wif-man) is a feminine formation from man, by the prefix wif. Lady (hlafdige) is irregularly derived from lord (hlaford). The y represents the feminine suffix -ige. 70 Vixen is a feminine formation from fox, by the feminine suffix -en. Seamstress has a double feminine suffix-the A.S. -ster, and the Norman -ess. In the word mistress the rooted-vowel of master has been changed, and the termination modified. In bridegroom we have an instance of the masculine being formed from the feminine. Groom is a corrupt form of A.S. guma, a man. Widower is derived from widow, by the addition of the masculine suffix -er. Drake is a masculine formation from duck. 5. What arguments might be used for or against the recognition of the article as a distinct part of speech? Tell what you know of the history of "an" and "the." The article is frequently called an adjective, but by the peculiar meaning which it now possesses it has little qualifying power. On the other hand, as they are only two in number, some grammarians hold that they ought not to be formed into a separate part of speech; and when their etymology is considere, a or an is a modified form of the numeral one (A.S., cen; O.E., ane), with its meaning rendered indefinite, while the is in reality the demonstrative pronoun. the, thes, thet, or that was declined like an adjective. In A.S. and O.E. 6. Trace as fully as you can the history of the inflexions of "thou," and of "he," "she," "it," in singular and plural. Thou (A.S., thu), thine (-ne, suffix of the genitive), dative and accusative thee (A.S., the). His (A.S., his; O.E., hys, hise), used occasionally in O.E. for her. Him, originally dative, but commonly used as an accusative. The accusative in A.S. was hine, and in O.E. hyne. This was either replaced by the dative, or gradually assumed the same form. The Her, genitive, dative, and accusative in modern English. genitive and dative in A.S. were hire, while the old accusative was hi. Its did not exist in the O.E. or A.S. Instead of it we find his, her, it, especially the first. They, in A.S. hi, and in O.E. hi, he, hei, thei. Their, in A.S. hira, heora, and in O.E. during the unsettled spelling there were many forms, the commonest being hire, here, and ther. Them, originally dative; A.S., him, heom; O.E., hem, hom, tham. This dative is now used as the accusative hi. 7. Account for the separate forms "two" and "twain," and for the 66 ten," "eleven," "twelve," "hundred,' second," "dozen," " "thousand," score, fortnight." words, first," 99.66 99 '66 In O.E. the numeral two was declined like an adjective, and another form of the nominative was twynne or twain. earlier forms taihun and tyn. Eleven is a compound of en one, and Ten represents the lufon ten. Twelve is a compound of twe, two, and lufon or leven, ten. Hundred was originally hund; then in O.E. it received the suffix -er; and still later it received the substantival termination -eth, written commonly t or d. Thousand (A.S., thusend). First, the superlative of for. Second, from Latin secundo, following. In A.S. there was no single word to express "second," the phrase the other being used instead. This want was felt, and the Norman-French term second was introduced. Dozen (Fr., douzaine). Score (Sax., scor), having reference to a primitive method of computation. Fortnight is a contraction from fourteen nights. 8. What is meant by the terms "strong" and "weak" applied to the conjugation of verbs? Explain the difference between the two forms of conjugation by telling what you know about their history. A verb is said to belong to the strong conjugation when its past indefinite (active) is formed by the modification of the root-vowel; and to the weak when it is formed by the addition of t, d, or ed. The modification of the root-vowel has been explained on the supposition that a reduplication at one time existed which is now lost; while on the other hand, with the weak conjunction the suffix -de in O.E. is supposed to be identical with did, the past indefinite of do. 9. Discuss the inflections of the verbs" may,' 66 will," "do." 9966 . can," "shall," " "have," May was in A.S. mag, and had for its past indefinite miht or mighte, These, in their slightly modified forms, may and might, still exist as auxiliaries. Can had for its past indefinite couth or coud, in which last an i has been afterwards inserted on the supposition that this verb had been formed in a similar manner to would and should. Shall has its past indefinite should, derived from A.S. scholde, shuld, or sulde. Have is in A.S. habbe; and it is thus conjugated-Have, hast (hæfst or habest), has (haveth). The past indefinite in A.S. was hoefde, and in O.E. hadde. Will has its past indefinite derived from the A S. wolde. In the past indefinite of do, we have a single example of a reduplication in modern English. This form did still more clearly shows its reduplication in A.S. when it was written dyde. 10. Account for the use of "to" in the infinitive present, and for its occasional omission in an infinitive after a verb, as, "I dare say." The present infinitve of Saxon verbs were frequently used as if they were substantives, and as such were capable of being, as it were, in the oblique cases after a preposition. The frequent use of the preposition "to" for this purpose has led to its being regularly employed with the infinitive. In O.E. this "to" was frequently omitted before the infinitive, and with certain verbs, as, dare, make, &c., it still is omitted. 11. Make two classifications of adverbs-one logical, according to their meaning; etymological, according to their form and origin. ADVERBS, CLASSED ACCORDING TO THEIR MEANING- ADVERBS, CLASSED ETYMOLOGICALLY. Derived From nouns: manly, bodily, homeward. |