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father. 9. He entered in the plot.

10. He lives at London.

22. What

24. These

11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. is the matter of him? 23. He broke his cane to pieces. plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. He was averse from the war. 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. They are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing.*

LESSON 99.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-
CONTINUED.

Caution.-Do not use prepositions needlessly.

Direction.-Correct these errors :

1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in? 3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about (leading is transitive). 9. By what state is Kentucky bounded by? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where

*This sentence and many of the worst in this Lesson have been culled from school compositions.

are you going to? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river.

Caution.-Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.

Direction.-Correct these errors:

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him? 7. He was born on the 13th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. Direction.-Point out the prepositions in Lessons 80 and 81, and name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation.

LESSON 100.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES.

Introductory Hints.-The stars look down upon the roofs of the living and upon the graves of the dead, but neither the living nor the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here and, but, neither, and nor connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called Co-ordinate Conjunctions. Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank.

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as [it would seem] if the heavens were lighted up that the nations might behold the scene. Here as, if, and that connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and so are called Subordinate Conjunctions. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank.

Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives. 153

DEFINITIONS.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.

Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank.

Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank.

Remark.-Some of the connectives, below, are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses. These may be called conjunctive adverbs.

CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.

Copulative.-And, both . . . and, as well as,* are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs.

Adversative.-But is a conjunction proper. However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs.

Alternative.-Neither, nor, or, either. or, and neither. nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs.

SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

That, what, whatever,† which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunc

tive adverbs.

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES.

Time.-After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, and whilst are conjunctive adverbs.

Place.—Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs.

* The as well as in He, as well as I, went; and not that in He is as well as I am. + The connective which may be an adjective. See p. 239, 1. 11.

Degree.-As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs.

Manner.—As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb.

Real Cause.-As, because, for, since, that, and whereas are conjunctions proper.

Reason. Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper.

Purpose.-In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are conjunctions proper.

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Condition. Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, so, and unless are conjunctions proper.

Concession.-Although, if (= even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES.

If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. What, which, and who are pronouns introducing questions; how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs.

Direction.-Study the lists above, and point out all the connectives in Lessons 80, 81, telling which are relative pronouns, which are conjunctions proper, and which are conjunctive adverbs.

To the Teacher.-If the pupils lack maturity, the six following lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omissiou will occasion no break in the course.

LESSON 101.

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES.

Direction.-Write compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the connectives named in the three subdivisions of Co-ordinate Connectives.

LESSON 102.

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED.

Direction.-Write complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the connectives of adjective clauses, and by the connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner.

LESSON 103.

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. Direction.-Write complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, reason, purpose, condition, and concession, and by the connectives of noun clauses.

LESSON 104.

CONNECTIVES.
ANALYSIS.

Direction.-Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives, below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences:

As may connect a clause expressing manner, time, degree, cause, or reason.

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington.

2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription.

3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas.

4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing.

5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.

If may connect a clause expressing condition, time, concession, or may introduce a noun clause.

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free.

7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.

8. Who knows if* one of the Pleiads is really missing.

9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing.

Lest may connect a clause expressing purpose or may introduce a noun clause.

* Many grammarians say that if here is improperly used for whether. But this use of it is common in good authors in early and in modern English.

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