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america, new testament, she stoops to conquer, hymn on the nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history of the united states, mount washington, english channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long island sound.

LESSON 10.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Direction.-Some words occur frequently, and for convenience are abbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first five letters:

Thursday and lieutenant.

These by writing the first four letters :

Connecticut, captain, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Pennsylvania, professor, president, Tennessee, and Tuesday.

These by writing the first three letters :

Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Colorado, Delaware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Kansas, major, Monday, Nebraska, Nevada, reverend, Satur. day, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July.

These by writing the first two letters:

Company, county, credit, example, idem (the same), Iowa, and Oregon.

These by writing the first letter:

East, north, Ohio, south, and west.

These by writing the first and the last letter:

Doctor, debtor, Georgia, Indiana, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and Virginia.

These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after each :

Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divinitatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinæ doctor (doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, post master, post meridiem (afternoon), post office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States.

These and

Direction. -The abbreviations in column 1 are irregular in the choice of letters; and those in column 2, in not beginning with capital letters. those you have made must be committed to memory.

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To the Teacher.-Explain to the pupils that the doubling of the in l. and LL. D., and of p. in pp., with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns line, lex, and page. Hold the pupils to this Lesson till they have mastered the application of the rules in Lesson 8, and have thoroughly learned all these common abbreviations.

LESSON 44.

VERBS.

Introductory Hints.- We told you, Lesson 8, how, by noticing the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes.

We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the sentence, and found one class that name things, and called them nouns.

But in all the sentences given you, we have used and have had to use another class of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that they are, or exist.

When we say Clocks tick, tick is not the name of anything; it tells what clocks do; it asserts action.

When we say Clocks are, or There are clocks, are is not the name of anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, or being. When we say Clocks hang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words hang, stand, last, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in which clocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being.

All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call Verbs (Lat. verbum, a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the most essential words in the sentence. They form the second part of speech.

Give a score of verbs that assert action. Give all that you think assert being or state of being.

DEFINITION.-A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being.

There are two forms of the verb, the participle and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), which express action, being, or state, without asserting it.

Direction.—Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs as you can think of :

Let some express being or state of being.

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Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind.

A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, is learning, may be learned, could have been learned.

Direction.-Unite the words in columns 2 and 3, and append the verbs thus formed to all the nouns in column 1 with which they will make good sense:

Remark.-Notice that is, was, and has been are used with nouns naming one thing; and that are, were, and have been are used with nouns naming more than one thing.

1

Words
Cotton
Sugar

Air

Teas

Speeches

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The examples you have written are sentences; the nouns are subjects, and the verbs are predicates.

As verbs are the only words that assert, every predicate must be a verb, or must contain a verb.

Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing.

Direction.-Analyze and parse five of the sentences you have written.

Model.-Poland was dismembered. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 4.
Parsing.-Poland is a noun,

asserts action.

because ·; was dismembered is a verb, because it

Direction.-Find and write the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 20 and 28, and tell why they are verbs.

LESSON 42.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

ADJECTIVES.

Introductory Hints.-The noun which is the subject and the verb which is the predicate are not always or often the whole of the structure which we call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers which support the rest of the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them.

We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same; as, two oranges having the same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different.

It is by their qualities, then, that we know things, and are able to separate them or to group them.

Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of things; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities in the apples, separate them into two kinds, the ripe ones and the unripe ones. These added words ripe and unripe, then, limit the word apples in its scope; ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone.

If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit: but the, this, or that points out a particular apple, and limits the word apple to that one; and an, no, some, many, or eight limits the word in respect to the number of apples which it denotes.

These and all such words as, by marking quality, pointing out, or specifying number or quantity, limit the scope or meaning of the noun, modify it, and are called Modifiers.

In the sentence above, apples is the Simple Subject and ripe apples is the Modified Subject. These and all such words modifying nouns and pronouns are called Adjectives (Lat. ad, to, and jacere, to throw), and form the fourtb part of speech.

DEFINITION.-A Modifier is a word or group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning.

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