The participle may be used in independent or absolute phrases.

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river.

Explanation.-The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See Lesson 44.

15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's "constitutionals."

LESSON 39.

COMPOSITION-PARTICIPLES.

COMMA-RULE.-The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, is set off by the comma, unless restrictive.

Explanation.—A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song; The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting describes without restricting; sitting restricts-limits the application of bird to a particular bird.

Direction.-Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson 37.

Caution. In using a participle be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify.

Direction.-Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your

reasons:

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements.

2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick.

3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap.

4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel.

5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.

Direction.-Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, and punctuating correctly :—

Model.-Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen.
Incorrect, because it appears that the ocean did the climbing.

Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean.

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. Direction.-Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase :

Buzzing, leaping, waving.

LESSON 40.

VERBS AS NOUNS-INFINITIVES.

Introductory Hints.—I came to see you. Here the verb see, like the participle, lacks the asserting power-I to see asserts nothing. See, following the preposition to,* names the act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from some grammarians has received the same name-some calling both gerunds, and others calling both infinitives. It differs from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition to. Came to see came for seeing.

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement; as, To read good books is profitable; I like to read good books. Here also the form with to is equivalent to the participial form reading. Reading good books is profitable.

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive (Lat. infinitus, without limit).

*For the discussion of to with the infinitive see Lesson 134.

Frequently the infinitive expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases to expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposition; but when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the to expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb.

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements.

Analysis and Parsing.

The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective or an adverb modifier,

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. hot-house is trap

18

catch 1 sunbeams

Oral Analysis.-To introduces the phrase; catch is the principal word, and sunbeams completes it.

Parsing. To is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to trap; catch is a form of the verb called infinitive; like a noun, it follows the preposition to and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by sunbeams.

2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character.

3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated.

4. We will strive to please you.

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the

predicate.

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.

Explanation.-Happy completes make and relates to us.

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective hard. To heal to be healed.

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander.

9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat.

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb enough. To eat to be eaten.

The infinitive phrase may be used as subject or complement.

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it.

12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive.

14. He seemed to be innocent.

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. To be innocent = innocent.

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him.

16. We should learn to govern ourselves.

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement.

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.

LESSON 41.

INFINITIVES-CONTINUED.

ANALYSIS.

The infinitive phrase may be used after a preposition as the principal term of another phrase.

1. My friend is about to leave me.

leave

me

Explanation.-The preposition about introduces the phrase used as attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase to leave

me.

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth.

3. No way remains but to go on.

Explanation.—But is here used as a preposition.

The infinitive and its assumed subject may form the principal term in a phrase introduced by the preposition for.

4. For us to know our faults is profitable.

น.

know faults

Explanation.-For introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of the entire phrase is us to know our faults; the principal word is us, which is modified by the phrase to know our faults.

5. God never made his work for man to mend.

Explanation.-The principal term of the phrase for man to mend is not man, but man to mend.

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. The infinitive phrase may be used as an explanatory modifier.

7. It is easy to find fault.

find fault

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase to find fault explains the subject it. Read the sentence without it, and you will see the real nature of the phrase. This use of it as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts. argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.

is

easy

8. It is not the way to

10. It is not all of life to live.

11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.

The infinitive phrase may be used as objective comple

ment.

12. He made me wait.

Explanation.-The infinitive wait (here used without to) completes made and relates to me. He made-wait me = He detained me.

This use of the infinitive is similar to the third use of the participle, described in Lesson 37. Compare I saw him do it with I saw him doing it. Compare also He