to it. Undoubtedly it has disciplinary value, and it may introduce maturer pupils to the philosophy of language; but this one thing seems clear: the worth of grammar as mental gymnastics or as linguistic philosophy or as both cannot and will not much longer justify for the study a place in our common and our graded schoolsit must bear on its branches more obvious and more serviceable fruit, or the tree will be hewn down and cast out of the way.

It is to meet this imperative need of pupils and of teachers that the authors of "Graded Lessons in English" have prepared the "Higher Lessons."

The aim of this work is to make the Science of the Language, of which all the essentials are thoroughly presented, tributary to the Art of Expression. Every principle unfolded in the Hints," and every idiom, common construction, and form, learned by the pupil in the analysis and parsing of the wide range of sentences given, is fixed in memory and, above all, in practice by varied and exhaustive drill in composition. The pupil is constantly stimulated to the attractive labor of composing sentences, arranging and rearranging their parts, contracting, expanding, punctuating, and criticising them-the analysis furnishing him materials for the synthesis, and the synthesis supplementing the analysis. Even if the study of grammar were only to lodge in the memory the facts and principles of the language, we contend that this could be done only by work in composition-this, and this only, can make them permanent possessions. Pupils taught in this way become, as we have ourselves seen, almost dangerous to the peace of the class-room, so ready are they to criticise each other's speech and even that of the teacher.

The first half of the book is devoted to "The Sentence and the Parts of Speech;" the next thirty pages to "Parts of Speech Subdivided;" the next seventy to " Modifications of the Parts of Speech;" and the remaining thirty to "Composition."

We start with the sentence, because the whole can be more easily understood than the parts, because words can be classified only from their function in the sentence, and because the pupil should, from the outset, see that that which determines the words in the sentence and the sentence itself is the thought expressed. Rules for Punctuation are given where they are needed, since the marks are as much a part of the sentence as are the words themselves-the sentence is not written till it is punctuated.

The large space allotted to "The Sentence and the Parts of Speech" is necessary, because (1) the offices and relations of the several classes of words are many and diverse, and inflections cannot be understood till, by analysis and synthesis, these are mastered; (2) because Arrangement must be studied, and the relations of clauses in the complex and the compound sentence must be understood in order to compose well; and (3) because, in reading, the pupil cannot express the subordination of the dependent clause to the independent, and the co-ordination of independent clauses, till he can detect such clauses at a glance.

Errors in construction are fully exposed in "Parts of Speech Subdivided" and in "Modifications of the Parts of Speech," and in the latter division inflectional forms are thoroughly treated.

In "Composition" the pupil is thoroughly drilled in the use of all

marks of Punctuation, is made familiar with the cardinal virtues of Style, and is led on to the grouping of sentences into Paragraphs and Paragraphs into Themes, to the construction of Frameworks for Themes, and to Letter-Writing.

Many years of experience in teaching grammar both with and without Diagrams that picture to the eye the several relations of words, phrases, and clauses in the sentence have convinced us of their great value. But while believing that no teacher or pupil, once familiar with them, will willingly part with their aid, we wish to say that they form no vital part of the work. They could be stripped from the pages, and the work remain intact.

The sentences given for analysis are largely gleaned from authors; but they will not always be recognized. To suit them to the special purpose in hand, many of them had to be changed, and, when changed, they could not be quoted; so it seemed best to us to give authors' names only in particular Lessons headed "Miscellaneous Exercises in Review."

We have preferred to make no departures from the ordinary classification and nomenclature, unless what seemed to us to be some gross error was to be avoided, or some practical good was to accrue to the pupil. Nor, while shunning no difficulties that lay in our path, have we turned out of our path to encounter any. The book was not written to air crotchets or to resolve grammatical puzzles, but for every day use in the school-room.

*The Diagrams in "Higher Lessons" were drawn by Masters F. J. Berlenbach and C. S. Francis, pupils in the Polytechnic Institute.

"Higher Lessons in English," on its way through the press, has been criticised by the distinguished philologist, Prof. Francis A. March of Lafayette College, Easton, Penn., and to him we are indebted for many most valuable suggestions.

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE,

July 1, 1877.

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER.

THOUGH professing to be a complete grammar, this work is not intended for beginners. In preparing it, we have supposed the pupil to be already thoroughly familiar with "Graded Lessons in English or its equivalent. Guard, then, against introducing "Higher Lessons" too early into the course of study.

The pupil may find some difficulty, at first, in understanding such constructions as the Participle and the Infinitive used as objective complement in Lessons 37 and 41 ; and in mastering the philosophy of such adverb clauses as those of degree, introduced by as and than, in Lesson 63; the distinction between those expressing reason and those expressing cause, in Lesson 64; and the force of the several connectives in the examples given in Lessons 104, 105, and 106.

If these or any other points are found to be too abstruse, we suggest that they be deferred till the book is reviewed.

Those who desire a brief course in technical grammar are referred to that outlined in the "General Review," pp. 234–8.