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CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

By Principles of Being are understood those universal Judgments, by which Being and its notes are represented. They are the foundation upon which the Metaphysical Science depends. All the sciences have their respective First Principles, which are the foundation of subsequent demonstration within the sphere of the proper subject matter; it is natural, then, that the queen of sciences should likewise have her First Principles, which assume the widest. extension in accordance with the extension of the formal object, and afford an ultimate basis for those of the other sciences.

SCHOLION.

In order that the subsequent investigation may be better understood by the reader, it will be necessary to borrow from applied logic certain elementary truths touching demonstration, the different species of judgments and their respective natures.

i. The demonstrative syllogism presupposes, in order that it may be enabled to draw its conclusion, three elements (as it were), of which two are explicitly, one implicitly, contained in its constitution. The two explicitly contained in the syllogism are the premisses; the one implicitly and virtually contained is the Dignity (or Dignities) on which demonstration depends.

a. The Dignities, as they are called in the School, never enter actually into the syllogism; but they virtually impart to it a cogency and evidence in such wise that, unless their truth be admitted, all demonstration becomes impossible. Thus, to take an example that Two and two make four is a self-evident truth; but it would be utterly valueless, save for the Principle of Contradiction. Let us suppose for one moment that this Principle is false. In such case it might be true that Two and two make four, and at the same time that Two and two do not make four.

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Consequently, it would not be possible to deduce any certain conclusion from the proposition. These Dignities are the First principles of science.

b. The first Premisses of perfect demonstration must be true, necessary, essential, primary, proper, convertible, self-evident, immediate, and causes of the conclusion1. By essential is meant, that they must have for middle term the formal and material cause of the subject; the material and efficient cause of the predicate, or passion. In other words, the middle term must be the definition of the subject, and must enter into the definition of the Predicate. Judgments are said to be proper, when they are not extraneous to the subject; as also when they are limited to the subject, affecting it alone and no other. By convertible is to be understood, that nothing in the periphery of the subject is outside the periphery of the predicate; and, conversely, that there is nothing within the periphery of the predicate which is outside the periphery of the subject. Thus, for instance, let it be a true convertible proposition that All men are capable of laughter; then it is true, vice versa, that All beings capable of laughter are men. By immediate is meant, that there is no middle term discoverable, by which such Judgments can be demonstrated. All men are capable of laughter is not an immediate Judgment; because it can be deduced from the middle term, Rational animal. Lastly, when it is said that these first premisses must be causes of the conclusion, it means that they must be causes of the conclusion not only logically, or conceptually, but materially likewise, i. e. that the objective relation of the subject to its predicate must be causal.

ii. Judgments are either analytical or synthetical. An analytical Judgment is representative of a composition or of a division which is of the essence of the subject, and is discoverable by simple analysis in the concept of the latter. Hence the name. Thus, for instance, the attribute, rational or intellectual, is essentially contained in the idea of man. A synthetical Judgment is representative of a composition or of a division which is not of the essence of the subject, but is added to it,-objectively by the fact, subjectively by observation or experiment. It is for this reason that they are called synthetical; because they join together with the subject a predicate, or attribute, extraneous to that subject's essence. Thus,

1 See St. Thomas, Opusculo XLVIII (aliter XLIV), c. 2.

Some men are blind,—Men are subject to fever,—The planets move in their orbits round the sun,-are instances of synthetical Judgments. It is plain then that analytical Judgments are necessary, universal, immutable; whereas synthetical Judgments are contingent, particular, mutable. The former have been likewise called identical; because there is an objective identity between subject and predicate in themselves.

In the present Book four questions will occupy our attention, touching

I. The two kinds of Principles generally.

II. Analytical Principles, in particular, and their reduction.

III. Experimental or synthetical Principles, their formation and certitude.

IV. The à priori synthetical Principles of Kant.

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