was so unable to govern that no less than twentynine persons, sometimes called the Thirty Tyrants, claimed the supreme power. Gallienus was assisted in his resistance to them by a Syrian chieftain, Odenathus, the husband of the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. The struggle went on for a long time. It was brought to an end by the death of Gallienus, who was killed in a tumult amongst the soldiers. CLAUDIUS II. (Gothicus), A.D. 268. A general who had been nominated by Gallienus as his successor. He reigned two years, gained a great victory over the Goths, and died of the plague. AURELIAN, A.D. 270. The son of a peasant, but a brave general. Claudius Gothicus appointed him his successor. He made war against the beautiful and clever Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who, after the death of her husband, Odenathus, tried to keep her country from subjection to Rome. Aurelian defeated and took her prisoner, and when he returned to Rome compelled her to walk in his triumphal procession. He also put to death Longinus, the prime minister of Zenobia. Longinus was a great philosopher, and wrote a very celebrated treatise on the Sublime. Aurelian died A.D. 276. TACITUS, A.D. 276. An old man of seventy, chosen by the senate. He was a kinsman of the historian Tacitus. His reign only lasted six months. PROBUS, A.D. 276. A brave officer, Hungarian by birth, chosen by the army. He tried to restrain his soldiers, and was killed in a mutiny, A.D. 282, after reigning six years. CARUS, A.D. 282. A brave officer, by birth a Gaul, killed, it is said, by a stroke of lightning, after reigning sixteen months. CARINUS and NUMERIAN, A.D. 284. Joint rulers; sons of Carus. They were assassinated in a few weeks. Numerian was the first to be killed. DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMIAN, A.D. 285. The reign of Diocletian marks a great change in the government, for this emperor, who was a successful soldier, and assumed the title even before the death of Carinus, chose a partner to share his throne, and appointed besides two vice-emperors, or Cæsars, as they were called, to assist in the government, so that there were now four rulers: Diocletian in the East; his court was at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor. Maximian in Italy and Africa; his court was at Milan. Constantius (a Cæsar) in Britain and Gaul; his court was at Treves. Galerius (a Cæsar) along the line of the Danube; his court was at Sirmium, in Pannonia. From this time the power of the senate greatly decreased, and the emperors and Cæsars became very despotic. Great jealousy was excited in their minds by the increasing number of Christians; and at length Diocletian was persuaded to issue an edict of persecution against them, A.d. 298, which was carried out with fearful severity until the year 311, when the edict was revoked by Galerius. Not long after the beginning of the persecution the emperor's health failed. He had reigned twenty-one years, and professed to be weary of the burden of government, and therefore he resolved to abdicate, and persuaded his partner Maximian to do the same. Diocletian lived in retirement eight years. When Maximian urged him to resume the throne he is said to have merely pointed to the vegetables which he had cultivated in his garden, declaring himself quite satisfied with such simple pleasures. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, A.D. 306. It is difficult to arrange the Roman emperors in exact succession, for Galerius was acknowledged as supreme ruler after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, but he had associated two friends with him as Cæsars, disregarding the claims of Constantine, the son of Constantius, the Cæsar in Britain. This made the soldiers angry, for Constantius, who was a just and merciful man and had protected the Christians, was very popular. To show their feeling for him they proclaimed Constantine emperor at York, and Galerius did not dare openly to oppose their choice. All he could do was to limit the title of Constantine, who was thenceforth recognised as Cæsar, and for six years governed in Gaul and Britain. 311 Galerius died, and a period of confusion followed, during which for a short time there were four persons-Licinius, Maximin, Constantine, and Maxentius—sharing the government of the empire, and each claiming to be the rightful emperor. Maxentius was the son of Diocletian's partner. He ruled in Italy, and was hated for his cruelty and rapacity. Constantine resolved to overthrow him, and, collecting his legions, he crossed the Alps and invaded Italy. A great battle was fought at the Milvian bridge, two miles from Rome, Maxentius was entirely defeated, and Constantine entered Rome in triumph. In This battle at the Milvian bridge is one of the most noted in history, for it led to the acknow ledgment of the Christian religion as the established religion of the Roman empire. Constantine himself solemnly swore that as he was marching from Gaul he saw a cross in the sky on which was inscribed "By this conquer,' and when he found himself victorious, he showed his increasing belief in Christianity by allowing the Christians to profess their religion freely. After a time he openly declared his conversion, and ordered his belief to be signified by a standard, known as the Labarum, at the top of which was the monogram of the name of Christ. Constantine's after conduct unhappily did little credit to his religion. In some ways he still supported the old Pagan worship, and he was not baptised until just before his death. His reign was greatly disturbed by contests with the several claimants to the empire, especially with Licinius, over whom he gained a great victory at Adrianople, A.D. 323. He had also many family troubles, his mother Helena and his wife Fausta being on very bad terms. Controversies upon very sacred subjects also disturbed the peace of the Christian Church; and the celebrated Council of Nicea was held, A.D. 325, with the sanction of the emperor, in order that the Christian bishops and priests might give their testimony to the faith as each had received it, so that the true belief, handed down from the Apostles, might be made clear. The result was the drawing up of the Nicene Creed, as we now have it, except that a few of the latter clauses were afterwards added to it at the Council of Constantinople. Constantine had taken possession of Italy, but, like Diocletian, he preferred to rule in the East, and with this view he resolved to make the town of Byzantium, on the Bosphorus, the residence of the emperors. This change was fatal to the grandeur of the Roman empine. Constantine enlarged and beautified Byzantium, and called it after himself, Constantinople; and from that time the division of the empire into two distinct parts was completed. The latter years of Constantine were peaceful and prosperous. The poor were cared for, learning was fostered, and cruelty was discouraged. The emperor died A.D. 357, leaving behind him a character which will always be a fruitful subject of controversy. CONSTANTINE, CONSTANS, AND CONSTANTIUS, A.D. 337. Constantine the Great divided his empire among his three sons, but the result of this division was a civil war. Constantius proved the strongest ir the end, and became the undisputed ruler of the empire. He professed himself a Christian; but he supported the Arians, who did not acknowledge the divinity of Christ. Pride was his chief characteristic. When he visited Rome and entered the city with a grand procession, he tried to show himself to be above all ordinary interest or curiosity, by standing up in his chariot, not glancing either to the right or left, never touching his mouth, nor moving a finger-in fact, being absolutely immovable, except when passing under some lofty arch, and then only bowing his head slightly. The Roman people bore with this absurd haughtiness because they looked upon their emperors as sacred. The empire was at peace during the reign of Constantius, except so far as it was disturbed by the controversies of the Catholics and Arians. Constantius died. A.D. 361. |