LESSONS IN DRAWING.-No. VI.

OUTLINE (continued).

THE forms of which we have hitherto spoken have been for eye, is properly represented. Take the figure of a cube, for the most part such as may be drawn in their natural or proper instance: three of the six square faces of this solid are shown, dimensions on a flat surface, as, for instance, the square or the but one only is seen as a square. This is a perspective view Fig. 72

pentagon; but, in the following figures of solid bodies (fig. 71), | of the cube; its faces are drawn according to the principles o

we see that only one side of each solid, viz., that nearest the that art, and so are the faces of the other solids; and, in all, VOL. II.

48

cases where the outline of a figure lies in more than one surface straight lines A B and A C were the dimensions of the origior plane-that is, where the figure is not flat,-perspective fur-nal, and AE the length of the copy, then the straight line nishes us with rules by which a perfectly correct representation may be given. Perspective, therefore, naturally comes in order as the next branch of the art of drawing; and, after the following considerations regarding outline, we shall take up the subject of perspective, that is, in the succeeding lesson.

DE drawn parallel to B c will give a D, the preportionate height. Where the given or required dimensions are so extended as to make this method troublesome in practice, the length A B may be easily found by the rule of proportion in arithmetic; for a fourth proportional to the numbers expressing the engths of A E, A D, and A c, in inches, will give the required height. The proposition here referred to is the twelfth of the sixth book of Euclid; see Cassell's edition, page 134.

In the operations of a good draughtsman, the eye, the hand, and the judgment, act in concert; but this desirable combination is never seen except as the result of very considerable practice. In order to succeed in its attainment, the student must continue exercises on outline far beyond what we have yet given him in these pages. If he has made himself acquainted with the principles of form, he will soon master every difficulty: and he may then proceed occasionally to copy from the draw ings of a master hand. In these, he has the consummation of what the eye, the hand, and the judgment can produce; and if he copy them with spirit and accuracy, and at the same time with freedom, he will go through really valuable exercise. Good examples of outline are easily attainable: in Mr. Cassell's publications, "The Illustrated Magazine of Art," and "The History of the Painters of all Nations," specimens of drawings executed by the very first masters abound. But, as these drawings are for the most part filled up with light and shade, and made into complete pictures, if the student attempts to copy these, or any other drawings of the same description, he will need to exercise much care and observation; and, with this view, the following remarks will be of assistance to him. We shall suppose that he attempts to copy a simple subject, such as "The Forest," fig. 72; and, first, that he wishes to make a copy of the same size as the original. Let him imagine a perpendicular line to pass through the picture, dividing it into halves: this will pass through a point close to the fork in the upper branches of the tree, and will come downward near the dark spot in the principal branch, Its complete course downward is then easily followed. Having noticed the lending points through which this imaginary perpendicular passes, he must next imagine a horizontal line to pass through the picture, also dividing it into two equal parts. Two lines drawn visibly on the original would, of course, settle these points at once; but, in accustoming the eye to observation, it is much better to have them visible only to the mind, as this exercises the judgment also. The student should now draw two snch lines faintly on his paper, and then proceed to make his copy, measuring by his eye the distance of one point from another, in which he will find these lines of great assistance.

Let us next suppose that his copy is not to be of the same size as the original. In order to attain greater correctness, the student should endeavour to determine the length and breadth of his copy, so that they shall be in just proportion to those of the original. If the dimensions of the original are taken in inches, the halves of these numbers will be the dimensions of a copy one-fourth of its size; one third of each of these numbers will be the dimensions of a copy one-ninth of its size;-and so on: the squares of the ratios of their dimensions being the exact ratios of the sizes of the picture and its copy. The meaning of this is, that if the ratios of the dimensions be 3, 1, , &c., the ratios of the sizes will be X, X, X, &c.; or, simply,,,, &c. If the proposed length is given by means of a straight line, the height or breadth may be found by the following method:-In fig. 73, draw two lines making any angle with each other; in one of them, set off with the compasses the length of the original, as A E, and in the other its height, as A D; join DE; then, if A c be the proposed length of the copy, set this length off on A E with the compasses, and through a draw B c parallel to DE; then AB is the proportionate height of the copy. This diagram supposes that reduced dimensions are required; but, if the

Having thus determined the size of his copy, the student will now refer to the perpendicular and horizontal line drawn, or supposed to be drawn, as described above. Of course, he should not give any attention to the smaller details of the picture until all the larger parts and outlines are properly drawn the latter are then easily added. This, indeed, is general principle of procedure applicable to the whole range of the art, to outline, to colour, and to effect, to original drawing as well as to copying. We call the attention of the student particularly to this principle, as there is none which he is more apt to overlook. Fig. 74 is an outline of fig. 72 to a scale of illustrate, to some extent, the nature of the preceding observaone-half of its linear dimensions. This will exemplify and tions; but this mere sketch is intended more as a hint than as a perfect example to the student.

It is proper here to remind the student of the method of points mentioned in Lessons III. and IV.; for he will find it eminently useful in making such copies as we are now speaking of; indeed, he should mark off all the principal masses in the manner referred to, in whatever copy he may undertake to draw. It will be observed that, in the small outline exhibited in fig. 74, the effect of light and shade is given to some parts by a thickening of the line on the shadow side; and the effect of distance, by making all the outlines of the more forward objects bolder than those of the more distant. This has a pleasing effect when well managed; but the student must take this only as a hint at present: future examples will bring this subject more fully under his observation. We shall conclude this lesson with a short account of an instrument used by artists for copying drawings on a reduced scale, for the purposes of copper-plate or other engravings.

The Pantograph, (from the Greek pas, pantos, all, and grapho, I write,) is an instrument for copying, in a continuous manner,

SIMPLE VERBS.

is short in regard to quantity, and may be vocal, that is, such Simple verbs consist of a monosyllable, which, in general, as end in a vowel, or, what is more common, consonantal, or

such as terminate in one consonant or in two consonants. In order to obtain the root or stem, we must cut off the personal ending o, e. g., lu-o, em-o, flu-o, frem-o, scand-o. A short syllable is sometimes, for the sake of force in pronunciation, made long by the addition of a consonant, thus: lab (labium, a lip) becomes lamb-o, I lick; jug (jugum, a yoke) becomes jung-o, Ijoin; tag (hence, tetigi) becomes tang-o, I touch; tud (hence, tutŭdi) becomes tund-o, 1 pound; scid (scidi), scind-o, I cleave; tem becomes temn-o, I despise; sper becomes spern-0, I spurn; sig (sig-illum, a seal), sign-o, 1 sign. The number of primitive verbs is comparatively small.

DERIVATIVE VERBS.

Derivative verbs are formed first from nouns, thus: from color, colour, we have colorare, to colour; from fulgur, lightning, fulgurare, to lighten; from fulmen, thunder, fulminare, to thunder; from monstrum, an indication, monstrare, to show (compare moneo); from regnum, a kingdom, regnare, to rule; from pugnus, a fist (compare Gr. pux, with clenched fist, pugna, a fight,

Pax, pac-is, peace, pacare, to pacify; root, păc.
Lux, luc-is, light, luc-ere, to be light; root, lúc (compare

lucerna, a lamp).

man has done in large. The principle of this instrument will be understood from fig. 75, in which M N Pa is a parallelo-E. R. pugilist), pugnare, to fight; from fastidium, nausea (com. gram composed of four levers or rods, which are jointed at the pare fastus, pride), fastidire, to be disgusted with. In some four angles, and are moveable round the joints or pins. A cases, it may be doubted whether the noun or the verb is the crayon or pencil is placed at a, and a point or tracer at a on primitive, e. g., the prolongation of the lever N P, and these are adjusted so that the straight line A a, when produced, passes through the point o, which is preserved in a fixed position. By tracing with the point or tracer at A the whole of the outline of any figure or curve, c A B, the crayon or pencil at a will produce a figure, c a b, exactly similar to the former. The levers M N and a P are furnished with holes previously numbered and adjusted, so that the artist can at pleasure place the pins in them, alter the position of the joints, and draw a copy to any determinate scale. In fig. 76, there is a representation of an Fig. 76.

instrument of this kind carefully constructed in brass, and having its sides decimally divided. In this figure, you see the fixed point or centre, and the extremities of the pencil or crayon, and of the tracer, all placed in the same straight line, which is represented as dotted. The instrument rests upon the centre and tracer at opposite extremities of two parallel levers, and upon small wheels at their two other opposite extremities. The pantograph was described in a book published at Rome in 1631, entitled Pantographia, seu Ars delineandi res quaslibet, &c. The principle on which the operation of the preceding instrument is founded is the same as that on which the construction of fig. 73 depends, and is contained in the second proposition of the sixth book of Euclid, page 125, Cassell's edition; or, rather, under a more extended view in the fourth proposition of the same book, at page 128, Cassell's edition.

LESSONS IN LATIN.-No. XLIII.
By JOHN R. Beard, D.D.
VARIOUS KINDS OF VERBS.

Finis, a boundary, finire, to bound or limit.
Sors, sort-is, a lot, sortiri, to cast or draw lots.
Flos, flor-is, a flower, florere, to flower or blossom.
Foed-us, foul, foedare, to pollute or make foul.
Laus, laud-is, praise, laudare, to praise or laud.
Gravis, heavy, gravare, to make heavy, to load.
Largus, abundant, largiri, to give abundantly.

Those, also, are derivative verbs which indicate a repetition of the act indicated by the verbs. They are formed by the insertion of t or it, and are called frequentatives. They follow the first conjugation, thus:

Verbs formed by t: From dicere, to say, dictare, to repeat; from cano, I sing, can-tare, to chant; from capere, to take, captare, to snatch; from salire, to leap, sal-tare, to dance; from trahere, to draw, trac-tare, to drag; root, trah; from specere, to look, spec-tare, to look at, to view.

Verbs formed by it: From ago, to do, ag-itare, to be always doing; from cogere, to drive, cog-itare, to revolve; from clamare, to cry, clam-itare, to shout; from rogare, to ask, rogitare, to entreat; fluere, to flow, flu-itare, to float; volare, to fly, vŏl-itare, to flutter; quaerere, to seek, quaer-itare, to look for; fear, pav-itare, to fear greatly; latere, to be hid, lat-itare, to lie noscere, to know, nosc-itare, to be acquainted with; pavēre, to hid often; minari, to hang over, min-itari, to threaten; polliceri, to offer, pollic-itari, to promise; nego, to deny, něg-itare, to deny often; sciscere, to learn, scisc-itari, to inquire.

Verbs formed by t and it: From dictare, to repeat, dict-itare, to repeat often; cantare, to chant, cant-itare, to chant often; ventare, to come often, vent-itare, to frequent; legere, to read, lect-itare, to read often; vivere, to live, vict-itare, to feed upon; verbs are, as it were, derived from lectare, victare, scriptare, scribo, to write, script-itare, to write often; the three latter which were not in use.

DESIDERATIVE VERBS.

There is, also, a class of derivative verbs named desideratives, inasmuch as they express a desire (desiderium). They are formed first by the suffix tur, and are of the fourth conjugation; the full termination of the present is in turio, e. g., coenaturio, I desire a meal, from coena, a meal; empturio, I desire to pur chase; parturio, I wish to bring forth. The t is in some cases dropped, e. g., esurio, I wish to eat, from edo, I eat. Another way of forming desideratives is by means of ss with the conAs there are several kinds of verbs in Latin, it seems desirable necting vowel e, or, in the older forms of the language, i; as, to take a brief notice of the more important. The most com-lac-esso, I excite, from lacio, I entice; cap-esso, I seize, from prehensive division is formed by considering verbs as either simple or derivative.

capio, Itake; fac-esso, I perform, from facio, I do; pet-isso, also pet-esso, I strive after, from peto, I seek; incip-isso, I attempt,

Finally, there are the inchoative verbs, so called because SE they denote a beginning (from inchoo, I begin). The suffix is here sc, which is united to the root by means of a, e, i. Their inflexions are after the third conjugation, e. g., from labare, to totter or fall, is formed the inchoative (called also, inceptive, from incipio, I begin) labasco, I begin to fall or totter; from pallere, to be pale, comes pallesco, I grow pale; from gemere, to groan, gemisco, I sob; from dormire, to sleep, obdormisco, I fall asleep.

You see the blow given by the hand. Feriunt is a transitive verb, because the action which it conveys passes from the subject to the object. It is also a transitive verb in the active voice. Transitive verbs are in the active voice when they have the terminations of the active voice. Or, to define the matter according to the sense, transitive verbs are in the active voice when they have an object, as feriunt, the object of which is adversarium. The same sense may be expressed by a passive voice, thus:

Subject.
Verb.
Adversarius feritur

Their opponent is struck

Instrument.

a pugilibus by boxers

Elephas, ntis, m. (also, elephantus, i, m.) an elephant; ventilo 1, 1 hesitate, delay; quadrigae, arum, f. a chariot drawn by four horses. EXERCISES.-LATIN-ENGLISH.

Pictura ornat domum; salutamus parentes nostros; postulav1 librum meum; stellae superant terram magnitudine; homines cibo satiantur; hic passer necatus est ab accipitre; corpus humanum optime duratur labore; amamur a Deo, et ab eo semper amati sumus; saepe exercitus servatur virtute unius militis; reges olim creati sunt a populo; miseri consolantur se spe meliorum temporum; maximi elephantes vagantur in silvis et montibus Indiae ; agitantur quadrigae; Coelius, ut dictitabat, ad Caesarem pervenit; animus, qui ex inflammatâ animâ constat, superiora capessit; By comparing together this and the last example, you see solus coenitabat apud me pater; solet accipiter trepidas agitare the object has become the subject; and the subject is converted columbas; spes est nos esurituros esse; omnes imperio laeti into the instrument; and observe, the instrument is preceded parent ac jussa facessunt; ipse metuere incipies ne innocenti periby the preposition a. By that preposition (a, ab, abs, by or culum facesseris; ex legionibus fabros delegit, et ex continenti with) the instrument-when a person or an animate object-imo; quem fortem et bonum civem non petulantissime est insectaalios arcessiri jubet; cui maledixit unquam bono? benedixit? must always be accompanied. If the instrument is a thing,tus?' cupio te ad me venire; ventum in insulam est; quam stultum an inanimate object, it is put in the ablative case without any est, quum signum pugnae acceperis, ventilare! volitat ante oculos preposition, e. g., istorum juba regis filius; pennis volare haud facile est homini.

Puer feritur baculo,

The boy is struck with a stick.
Miles interficitur gladio,

The soldier is slain by the sword.

In the instance just given of an active voice converted into a passive voice, the sense remains the same. But in the previous example the sense is altered. This will best appear by the two cases being put together.

The sense altered {
The sense unaltered{

Act.

Pass.

Act.

Pater amat filium

Pater amatur a filio
Pugiles feriunt adversarium
Pass. Adversarius feritur a pugilibus

In the first instance, you see the subject of the active voice remains the subject in the passive voice. But in the second, the subject of the active voice has in the passive become the instrument.

It is the essential feature of the passive voice that the action of the verb, instead of passing over to an object, either turns back on the subject, or remains with the subject. In amor, I am loved, the act of loving turns back on the subject I. Hence a reflex action is involved in many passive verbs. Moveor, I am moved, may signify I move myself, or simply, I move. This peculiarity of meaning in Latin, is in Greek denoted by a peculiarity of form which is called the middle

voice.

A much more definite peculiarity is that by which verbs, which, being passive in form, have an active signification. These are already known to the student as the class of deponent verbs. Minute accuracy would require a division to be made of deponent verbs into transitive and intransitive, for while hortor, I encourage, has an object, proficiscor, I go, is without an object.

There are, also, verbs which, though active in form, have a neuter signification; for vapulo signifies I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold.

ENGLISH-LATIN.

we are

The house is ornamented with pictures; the birds fly; the birds fit; I can fly with wings; he has caused danger to me, an innocent man; he spoke well of his general; is there any hope of eating? he drives the enemy about; an elephant wanders in the forest; God loves good men; good men are loved by God; the earth is surpassed in magnitude by the stars; saluted by our parents; the boy saluted his mother; I have been sent for by the king; the king sent for the general; the general saved the army by his valour; by the wisdom of good men the world is saved (preserved); the young man executes his uncle's commands; thou art satisfied with food; labour strengthens the husbandman; husbandmen are strengthened by labour; the hawk killed the sparrow; of old, the people created kings.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-No. XXXVII.

SECTION LXXVI.

Schmerzen, to pain, is used like the corresponding English word. Ex.: Der Gedanke schmerzt mich; the thought pains me. Die Wunde schmerzt ihn; the wound pains him.

I. Weh, (pain) joined with thun, (to do, to make) forms the phrase, Weh thun, to pain, to grieve; literally, to make, or cause pain. Ex.: Das thut mir web; that grieves me (it causes me pain). Er hat dem Kinde weh gethan; he has hurt the child. Die Hand thut ihm weh; the hand pains him. Das Kind hat sich weh gethan; the child has hurt itself.

II. Leid thun, (literally, to make, or cause pain,) is employed to denote mental sufferings; sorrow; as, Es thut ihm leid, daß er es gethan hat; he is sorry, that he has done it. Es thut mir leit, ihn nicht gesehen zu haben; I am sorry not to have seen him.

III. Schlen, to fail, to miss, to lack, is often used impersonally. Ex.: Es fehlt ihm an Verstand; he was lacking in understanding. So also, Was fehlt dem Manne? What ails the man? Was fehlt

Shnen? What ails you? or what is the matter with you?

In some verbs the two forms, the active and the passive, are blended together, and that without a passive meaning. As these verbs have not a passive import, so are they intransitive or neuter, and, for the sake of a name, are called neuter pas-Abweichen, to deviate;

sives, e. g.,

Abermals, again, once

more;

Begegnen, to en

counter;
Ding, n. a thing;
Erwerben, to earn,
get, obtain;
Fehl'gehen,

to go
wrong, to miss the
way;