it. It is certain that volcanoes exhibit many electrical appearances, and that great quantities of the electrical fluid are discharged at every eruption. But our knowledge of electricity is still too limited to draw any certain conclusion from these appear ances. Naturalists contend that all the southern islands have been volcanised; and they are seen daily to be formed by the action of these subterraneous fires. The black color of the stones, their spongy texture, the other products of fire, and the identity of these substances with those of the volcanoes at present burning, are all in favor of the opinion that their origin was the same. When the decomposition of the pyrites is advanced, and the vapors and elastic fluids can no longer be contained in the bowels of the earth, the ground is shaken, and exhibits the phenomenon of earthquakes. Mephitic vapors are multiplied on the surface of the ground, and dreadful hollow noises are heard. In Iceland the rivers and springs are swallowed up; a thick smoke, mixed with sparks and lightning, is then disengaged from the crater; and naturalists have oberved, when the smoke of Vesuvius takes the form of a pine, the eruption is near at hand. To these preludes, which show the internal agitation to be great, and that obstacles oppose the issue of the volcanic matters, succeeds an eruption of stones and other products, which the lava drives before it ; and, lastly, appears a river of lava, which flows out, and spreads itself down the side of the mountain. At this period the calm is restored in the bowels of the earth, and the eruption continues without earthquakes. The violent efforts of the included matter sometimes cause the sides of the mountain to open; and this is the cause which has successively formed the smaller mountains that surround volcanoes. Montenuevo, which is 180 feet high, and 3000 in breadth, was formed in a night. This crisis is sometimes succeeded by an eruption of ashes, which darkens the air. These ashes are the last result of the alteration of the coals; and the matter which is first thrown out is that which the heat has half vitrified. In the year 1767 the ashes of Vesuvius were carried twenty leagues out to sea, and the streets of Naples were covered with them. The report of Dion, concerning the eruption of Vesuvius in the reign of Titus, wherein the ashes were carried into Africa, Egypt, and Syria, seems to be fabulous. M. de Saussure observes that the soil of Rome is of this character, and that the famous catacombs are all made in the volcanic ashes. It must be admitted, however, that the force with which all these products are thrown is astonishing. In the year 1769 a stone twelve feet high, and four in circumference, was thrown to the distance of a quarter of a mile from the crater: and in the year 1771 Sir William Hamilton observed stones of an enormous size, which employed eleven seconds in falling. This indicates an elevation of nearly 2000 feet. The eruption of volcanoes is frequently aqueous; the water which is confined, and favors the decomposition of the pyrites, is sometimes strongly thrown out. Sea salt is found among the ejected matter, and likewise sal ammoniac. In the year 1630 a torrent of boiling water, mixed with lava, destroyed Portici and Torre del Greco. Sir W. Hamilton saw boiling water ejected. The springs of boiling water in Iceland, and all the hot springs which abound at the surface of the globe, owe their heat only to the decomposition of pyrites. Some eruptions are of a muddy substance; and these form the tuffa and the pouzzolano. The eruption which buried Herculaneum is of this kind. Sir W. Hamilton found an antique head, the impression of which was well enough preserved to answer the purpose of a mould. Herculaneum, at the least depth, is seventy feet under the surface of the ground, and in many places 120. The pouzzolano is of various colors. It is usually reddish, sometimes gray, white, or green: it frequently consists of pumice-stone in powder; but sometimes it is formed of oxided clay. 100 parts of red pouzzolano afforded Bergmann silex 55, alumina 20, lime 5, iron 20. When the lava is once thrown out of the crater, it rolls in large rivers down the side of the mountain to a certain distance, which forms the currents of lava, the volcanic causeways, &c. The surface of the lava cools, and forms a solid crust, under which the liquid lava flows. After the eruption, this crust sometimes remains, and forms hollow galleries, which Messrs. Hamilton and Ferber have visited: it is in these hollow places that the sal ammoniac, the muriate of soda, and other substances, sublime. A lava may be turned out of its course by opposing banks or dykes against it: this was done in 1669 to save Catania; and Sir William Hamilton proposed it to the king of Naples to preserve Portici. The currents of lava sometimes remain several years in cooling. Sir William Hamilton observed, in 1769, that the lava which flowed in 1766 was still smoking in some places. Lava is sometimes swelled up and porous. The lightest is called pumice-stone. The substances thrown out by volcanoes are not altered by fire. They eject native substances, such as quartz, crystals of amethyst, agate, gypsum, amianthus, felspar, mica, shells, schorl, &c. The fire of volcanoes is seldom strong enough to vitrify the matters it throws out. We know only of the yellowish capillary and flexible glass thrown out by the volcanoes of the island of Bourbon, on the 14th of May 1766 (M. Commerson), and the lapis gallinaceus ejected by Hecla. Mr. Egolfrigouson, who is employed by the observatory at Copenhagen, has settled in Iceland, where he uses a mirror of a telescope which he has made out of the black agate of Iceland. The slow operation of time decomposes lavas, and their remains are very proper for vegetation. The fertile island of Sicily has been every where volcanised. Chaptal observed several ancient volcanoes at present cultivated; and the line which separates the other earths from the volcanic earth constitutes the limit of vegetation. The ground over the ruins of Pompeii is highly cultivated. Sir William Hamilton considers subterranean fires as the great vehicle used by nature to extract virgin earth out of the bowels of the globe, and repair the exhausted surface. The decomposition of lava is very slow. Strata of vegetable earth, and pure lava, are occasionally found applied one over the other; which denote eruptions made at distances of time very remote from each other, since in some instances it appears to have required nearly 2000 years before lava was fit to receive the plough. In this respect, however, lavas differ very widely, so that our reasoning from them must at best be very vague. An argument has been drawn from this phenomenon to prove the antiquity of the globe; but the silence of the most ancient authors concerning the volcanoes of the kingdom of France, of which we find such frequent traces, indicates that these volcanoes have been extinguished from time immemorial; a circumstance which carries their existence to a very distant period. Beside this, several thousand years of connected observations have not afforded any remarkable change in Vesuvius or Ætna: nevertheless these enormous mountains are all volcanised, and consequently formed of strata applied one upon the other. The prodigy becomes much more striking, when we observe that all the surrounding country, to very great distances, has been thrown out of the bowels of the earth. The height of Vesuvius above the level of the sea is 3659 feet; its circumference 34,444. The height of Etna is 10,036 feet; and its circumference 180,000. The various volcanic products are applicable to several uses. 1. Pouzzolano is of admirable use for building in the water: when mixed with lime it speedily fixes itself; and water does not soften it, for it becomes continually harder and harder. Chaptal has proved that oxided ochres afford the same advantage for this purpose: they are made into balls, and baked in a potter's furnace in the usual manner. The experiments made at Sette, by the commissary of the province, prove that they may be substituted with the greatest advantage instead of the pouzzolano of Italy. 2. Lava is likewise susceptible of vitrification; and in this state it may be blown into opaque bottles of the greatest lightness, which Chaptal says he has done at Erepian and at Alais. The very hard lava, mixed in equal parts with wood-ashes and soda, produced, he says, an excellent green glass. The bottles made of it were only half the weight of common bottles, and much stronger, as was proved by Chaptal's experiments, and those which M. Joly de Fleury ordered to be made under his administration. 3. Pumice stone likewise has its uses; it is more especially used to polish most bodies which are somewhat hard. It is employed in the mass or in powder, according to the intended purpose. Some times, after levigation, it is mixed with water to render it softer. VOLCANO, an island of the Mediterranean, belonging to Sicily, the most southern of the Lipari group, lies between Lipari and the Sicilian coast, being separated from the former by a narrow channel. It consists of a single volcanic mountain, of rather more than half a mile in height, which descends by successive gradations till its circumference at the base is about twelve miles. A bright cloud seems to rest on it at night, produced by the smoke and vapor emitted from all parts of it. is oval. It VOLHYNIA, an extensive government of Russia, lying to the east of the kingdom of Poland, between the governments of Grodno and Podolia. Its territorial extent is 29,300 square miles, and its population about 1,200,000, little more than half the number of Scotland on a surface of equal extent. While Poland was entire, Volhynia formed a province of that kingdom, which bordered with the Ukraine on the south-east. The soil is generally chalky, but in some places marshy, and in many a rich vegetable mould. The climate is in general temperate. Its produce consists in wheat, mullet, and rye. Its pasturages are extensive. Volhynia has often been exposed to the evils of invasion. In 1618 the Tartars made an incursion into it, carried off a great booty in cattle and other property, and led a number of the inhabitants into slavery. Since 1793 it has been in the possession of Russia. Its chief town Zytomiers. VOLITION, n. s. Į Lat. volitio. The act of VOL'ITIVE, adj. Swilling; the power of choice exerted having the power to will. : To say that we cannot tell whether we have liberty, because we do not understand the manner of volition, is all one as to say that we cannot tell whether we see or hear, because we do not understand the manner of sensation. Wilkins. volitive, making the man not only more knowing, but They not only perfect the intellectual faculty, but the more wise and better. Hale. There is as much difference between the approbation of the judgment, and the actual volitions of the will, as between a man's viewing a desirable thing with his eye, and reaching after it with his hand. South. VOLKAMERIA, in botany, a genus of plants, in the class of didynamia, and order of angiospermia; ranking according to the natural method in the fortieth order, personatæ. VOLKOF (Theodore), a Russian actor, born at Jaroslaf, in 1729. By frequenting the German theatre, he became fond of the stage. He set up a private one, wherein he performed with his brothers; which coming to the ears of the empress, Elizabeth, she invited him to Petersburgh, and took him and his company into her service, whereby he soon made a fortune, and left a large estate. He died in 1763, aged only thirty-four. VOLLEY, n. s. & v. n. Fr. volée. A flight of VOL'LIED, adj. shot; a burst; sudden emission to throw out: vollied is discharged in a volley. A fine volley of words, gentlemen, and quickly shot off. pany. Id. From the wood a volley of shot slew two of his comRaleigh. I stood Thy fiercest, when in battle to thy aid VOLE, n. s. Fr. vole. A deal at cards, that The blasting vollied thunder made all speed. Milton. draws the whole tricks. Past six, and not a living soul! Swift. I might by this have won a vole. An old boy, at his first appearance, is sure to draw on him the eyes and chirping of the whole town volery; amongst which, there will not be wanting some birds of prey, that will presently be on the wing for him. Locke. Birds and flying animals are almost erect, advancing the head and breast in their progression, and only prone in the act of volitation. Browne. Distrustful sense with modest caution speaks; It still looks home, and short excursions makes; But rattling nonsense in full vollies breaks. Pope. VOLNEY (Constantine Francis Chassebœuf), count de, a modern French writer, was born at Craon in Britanny, in 1755. He no sooner became master of a small patrimonial estate than he converted it into money, and embarked for the Levant. He travelled through various parts of Egypt and Syria; and, after a residence for some time in a Maronite convent on Mount Libanus, returned to France in about three years. The fruits of his enquiries appeared in his Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, 2 vols. 8vo., which was translated into English, Dutch, and German. Taking up his residence at Auteuil, near Paris, he now became connected with some of the most eminent of his literary contemporaries; and on the convocation of the Statesgeneral, in 1789, was elected a deputy from the Tiers Etat of Anjou. He frequently appeared with advantage as a public speaker. In 1791 he published his Ruines, ou Méditations sur les Révolutions des Empires. On the conclusion of the sessions of the National Assembly, he accompanied M. Pozzo di Borgo to Corsica, where he had projected some agricultural improvements, and made attempts to establish in that island the cultivation of the sugar cane, indigo, and other tropical plants. Returning to Paris, after ten months' imprisonment, the fall of Robespierre restored him to liberty. In November 1794 he was appointed professor of history at the Normal School, and the course of lectures on the philosophy of history which he delivered added considerably to his reputation. In 1795 he made a voyage to the United States of America, where he experienced a flattering reception, and Volney would probably have settled in America, had not the prospect of a war with France induced him to return home. After the elevation of Buonaparte to the consulship, he was nominated a senator; and is said to have been offered the office of second consul. In the senate he cooperated with Lanjuinais, Cabanais, Destutt de Tracy, Coliaud, Garat, and others, whose influence was constantly exerted in the cause of freedom. After the return of the king, Volney, by a decree of the 4th of June, 1814, was designated a member of the chamber of peers, where he always appeared among the ardent defenders of the rights of the nation. His death took place, after a short illness, at Paris, April 24th, 1820. Besides the works mentioned, he published Simplification des Langues Orientales, ou Méthode nouvelle et facile d'apprendre les Langues Arabe, Persane, et Turque, avec les Caractères Européens, 1795, 8vo.; Tableau du Climat et du Sol de l'Amerique, 1803, 2 vols. 8vo., with a Vocabulary of the Language of the Miamis; Rapport fait à l'Academie Celtique sur l'Ouvrage Russe de M. le Professor Pallas, Vocabulaires comparés des Langues de toute la Terre, 1805, 4to.; Supplement à l'Herodote de Larcher, ou Chronologie d'Herodote conformé à son Texte, 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.; Questions de Statistique à l'Usage des Voyageurs, 1813, 8vo.; Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire Ancienne, 1814-15, 3 vols. 8vo. Volney was a member of the Institute from its foundation; and he belonged to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and to several European literary associations.-Biog. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. Univ. VOLO, an ancient town of European Turkey, in Thessaly, situated on the gulf of Volo. Its population amounts to nearly 5000. Its harbour is large, and resorted to by vessels from Egypt, Candia, Smyrna, &c. In 1685 it was taken and partly destroyed by the Venetians. Thirty-eight miles north-west of Larissa. VOLOGDA, a province of European Russia, lying to the south of that of Archangel, and to the east of those of Novgorod and Olonetz. It extends from long. 38° 20° to 49° 20′ E., and from lat. 58° 30′ to 65° N., being one of the largest but worst peopled governments of the empire; for, while its territorial extent is 149,000 square miles, VOL. XXII. its population probably does not amount to 654,000. To the north we have all the severity of the frozen zone; the trees losing their leaves in August, and the rivers being frozen over from the end of October to the middle of April. In the south there are large tracts occupied by forests, lakes, and morasses. Mountains are rare, and, though agriculture is followed, the severity and changeable state of the weather render it precarious. The produce of the pasture grounds, of the chase and fishing, tend to make up for this uncertainty. The government is divided into ten circles. The town of this name is a bishop's see, and has 11,000 inhabitants. VOLONES, in Roman antiquity, slaves who, in the Punic war voluntarily offered their service to the state, when they were admitted to citizenship, as none but freemen could be soldiers. VOLTA (Alexander), an Italian philosopher, distinguished for his discoveries in Galvanic electricity, was descended of a noble family, and born at Como in 1745. In 1769 he addressed to father Beccaria a dissertation De Vi attractiva Ignis Electrici; and in 1774 was appointed professor of natural philosophy at Pavia. He was in this situation when the discoveries of Galvani were published. Volta immediately turned his attention to the subject of Galvanism, and to his researches is due the discovery of what has been termed the principle of electro-motion, or the excitement of electricity by the contact of heterogeneous substances, as exhibited in the phenomena of the Voltaic pile. Volta addressed to the Royal Society of London, in 1792, an account of his observations, and in 1794 he was presented with the Copleian medal. In 1801 Buonaparte invited our professor to Paris, where he exhibited his discoveries to the members of the Institute. He was subsequently deputy from the University of Pavia to the consulta of Lyons, and then a member of the college of the Dotti, a senator, and at length a count. He died March 6th, 1826. A complete edition of his works appeared at Florence in 1816, 5 vols. 8vo. VOLTA, a considerable river of Guinea, in Western Africa, the boundary between the Gold and Slave coasts. It overflows its banks, and the channel is obstructed with rocks and sand-banks, which will not admit ships of burden. VOLTAIRE (Francis Arouet de), a celebrated French author, born at Paris, February 20th, 1694. His father, Francis Arouet, was ancien notaire au Chatelet, and treasurer of the chamber of accounts. He was an exceeding weakly child. In his earliest years he displayed a ready wit and a sprightly imagination; and, as he said of himself, made verses before he was out of his cradle. The famous Ninon De L'Enclos, to whom this ingenious boy was introduced, left him a legacy of 2000 livres to buy him a library. Having been sent to the equity schools, on his quitting college, he was so disgusted with the dryness of the law, that he devoted himself entirely to the muses. He had early imbibed a turn for satire; and, for some philippics against the government, was imprisoned almost a year in the Bastile. He had before this period produced the tragedy of dipus, which was represented in 1718 with great success; and the duke of Orleans, happening to see it performed, was so delighted, that he obtained his release from prison. He began his Henriade before he was eighteen. Several copies of this poem having got 2 K abroad, while it was only a sketch, an edition of it was published with many chasms, under the title of The League. Instead of fame and friends, the author gained only enemies and mortification, by this first edition. The bigots took fire at it, and the poet was considered as highly criminal for praising admiral Coligny and queen Elizabeth. Endeavours were even made to get the piece suppressed; but this design proved abortive. His chagrin, on this occasion, first inspired him with the thought of visiting England, to finish the work, and republish it in a land of liberty. He was right; for king George I., and more particularly the princess of Wales, afterwards queen of England, raised an immense subscription for him. Their liberality laid the foundation of his fortune; for on his return to France, in 1728, he put his money into a lottery and was fortunate. His Lettres Philosophiques, abounding in bold expressions and indecent witticisms against religion, having been burnt by a decree of the parliament of Paris, and a warrant being issued for apprehending the author in 1733, Voltaire withdrew; and was sheltered by the marchioness du Chatelet, in her castle of Cirey, on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, who entered with him on the study of the system of Leibnitz, and the Principia of Newton. A gallery was built, in which Voltaire formed a good collection of natural history, and made an infinite number of experiments on light and electricity. He labored in the mean time on his Elements of the Newtonian Philosophy, then totally unknown in France, and which the numerous admirers of Des Cartes were very little desirous should be known. In the midst of these philosophic pursuits he produced the tragedy of Alzira. He was now in the meridian of his age and genius, as was evident from the tragedy of Mahomet, first acted in 1741; but it was represented to the procureur-general as a performance offensive to religion, and the author, by order of cardinal Fleury, withdrew it from the stage. Merope, played two years after, 1743, gave an idea of a species of tragedy of which few models had existed. He now became a favorite at court, through the interest of Madam d'Etoile, afterwards marchioness of Pompadour. He was appointed a gentleman of the bed-chamber in ordinary, and historiographer of France. He had frequently attempted to gain admittance into the Academy of Sciences, but could not obtain his wish till 1746, when he was the first who broke through the absurd custom of filling an inaugural speech with the fulsome adulation of Richelieu; an example soon followed by other academicians. From the satires occasioned by this innovation he felt so much uneasiness, that he was glad to retire with the marchioness du Chatelet to Luneville, in the neighbourhood of king Stanislaus. The marchioness dying, in 1749, Voltaire returned to Paris, where his stay was but short. The king of Prussia now gave Voltaire an invitation to live with him, which he accepted towards the end of August 1750. On his arrival at Berlin, he was immediately presented with the Order of Merit, the key of chamberlain, and a pension of 20,000 livres. These, however, he did not long enjoy. Ile did not take sufficient pains to live well with Maupertuis, whose intrigues effected his disgrace. He now settled near Geneva; but afterwards, being obliged to quit that republic, he purchased the castle of Ferney in France, about a league from the lake of Geneva. It was here that he undertook the defence of the celebrated family of Calas; and it was not long before he had a second opportunity of vindicating the innocence of another condemned family of the name of Sirven. In 1774 he had the third time an opportunity of employing that zeal which he had displayed in the fatal catastrophe of the families of Calas and Sirven. In this retreat M. Voltaire continued long to enjoy the pleasures of rural life. Wearied at length, however, with his situation, or yielding to the importunities of friends, he came to Paris about the beginning of 1778, where he wrote a new tragedy called Irene. By this time his understanding seems to have been impaired, and he ridiculously suffered himself to be crowned in public with laurel, in testimony of his great poetical merit. He did not long survive this farce: for having over-heated himself with receiving visits, and exhausted his spirits by supplying a perpetual fund of conversation, he was first seized with a spitting of blood; and at last, becoming restless in the night time, he was obliged to use a soporific medicine. Of this he unluckily one night took so large a dose, that he slept thirty-six hours, and expired a very short time after awakening from it." VOL'UBLE, adj. Į Lat. volubilis. Formed VOLUBILITY, n. s. so as to roll easily; rolling; nimble; active, applied to the tongue and its nimbleness; fluent of words: the noun substantive corresponds. Then celestial fears should forget their wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way, as it might happen. This less voluble earth, Hooker. If voluble and sharp discourse be marred, Unkindness blunts it more than marble hard. Shaksp. By shorter flight to the' east, had left him there. Milt. He had all the French assurance, cunning, and colubility of tongue. Addison. These, with a voluble and flippant tongue, become mere echoes. Watts. Volubility, or aptness to roll, is the property of a bowl, and is derived from its roundness. Id. VOLUMNA, AND VOLUMNUS, in the mythology, two deities of the ancient Etrurians and Romans, who presided over the will and complaisance. They were invoked at marriages to preserve concord between the parties. VOLUMNE FANUM, a temple of Etruria, sacred to the above deities; where the Roman states assembled to make treaties. Viterbo now stands on the spot. VOLUME, n. s. Lat. volumen. SomeVOLU'MINOUS, adj. thing rolled or convolvVOLUMINOUSLY, adv. Sed; as much as seems convolved at once; a book, (because anciently formed into a roll or rolls): the adjective and adverb correspond with both senses. Guyon all this while his book did read, Ne yet has ended; for it was a great And ample volume, that doth far exceed My leisure, so long leaves here to repeat. Threescore and ten I can remember well; Spenser. Shakspeare. Within the volume of which time I've seen The serpent rolled voluminous and vast. There is pleasure in doing something new, though never so little, without pestering the world with volu minous transcriptions. Graunt The wakened earth in odours rise, To be her morning sacrifice. Thoughts which voluntary move Cleaveland. Milton. Harmonious numbers. Voluntary forbearance denotes the forbearance of an action, consequent to an order of the mind. Locke. By a voluntary before the first lesson, we are prepared for admission of those divine truths, which we are shortly to receive. Spectator. VOLUNTARY, in music, a piece played by a musician extempore, according to his fancy. This is often used before he begins to set himself to play any particular composition, to try the instrument, and to lead him into the key of the piece he intends to perform. VOLUNTEER, n. s. & v. n. Fr. volontaire. A soldier, who enters into the service of his own accord: to go voluntarily for a soldier. Dryden. Leave off these wagers, for in conscience speaking, The city needs not your new tricks for breaking: And if you gallants lose, to all appearing, You'll want an equipage for volunteering. Congreve, and the author of the Relapse, being the principals in the dispute, I satisfy them; as for the volunteers, they will find themselves affected with the misfortune of their friends. Collier. VOLUNTEERS, persons who, either for the service of their prince, or out of the esteem they have for their general, serve in the army without being enlisted, to gain honor and preferment, by exposing themselves in the service. Such are the volunteers who have been long known in the army: but the present age has witnessed whole regiments of volunteers arming themselves for a still more laudable purpose. In 1794 large bodies of citizens in the different cities and towns of Great Britain formed themselves into regiments for the preservation of internal peace, and the defence of their country from foreign attack. At the peace, in 1801, they mostly laid down their military habits; but, Shakspeare. Here, where still evening is, not noon nor night; Where no voluptuousness, yet all delight. You may be free, unless Donne. Dryden. Your other lord forbids, voluptuousness. Does not the voluptuary understand, in all the liberties of a loose and a lewd conversation, that he runs the risk of body and soul? L'Estrange. VOLUSIANUS, a Roman emperor, associated by his father Gallus, and murdered along with him. See ROME. VOLUSIUS, a poet of Patavia, who wrote the Annals of Rome in verse. VOLUTA, in natural history, a genus of animals belonging to the class and order of vermes testacea. There are 144 species. The animals are of the slug kind; the shell is unilocular and spiral; the aperture narrow and without a beak; the columella plaited. VOLUTE', n. s. member of a column. Fr. volute. An architectural |