various topics, and in different styles, those books and parts of books are, in the first instance, to be compared, which were composed by the same author, in the same language, and on a parallei subject. sixth line, to describe his final beatification, he shall appear | yet, as they were SECONDARILY written by different authors, on before God in Zion. The intermediate quatrain may be regarded as descriptive of the intermediate course pursued by those who desire to be good and happy: they are passengers, but they know their destination, and they long for it; at a distance from the temple (the mystical "sapientum templa serena"), they are [i] Thus, by comparing Psal. xxxviii. 10. with 1 Sam. xiv. 26, 27. (in which anxious to arrive there; the very highways to Jerusalem are in Jonathan having taken some honey for his refreshment is said to have had their heart. And what is the consequence? Affection smooths his eyes enlightened), we shall readily apprehend the force of the psalmist's complaint, that the light of his eyes was gone from him: for the eyes of a all difficulties; the parched and sandy desert becomes a rich well-person in good health are so strong, as to sparkle with the rays of light that watered valley; and they cheerfully advance from strength to fall upon them; whereas, when the constitution is worn by long sickness, strength; from one degree of virtuous proficiency to another." or broken by grief, the eyes lose their vigour and brilliancy, and in cases of incipient blindness, the light gradually fails the eyes. In like manner, it One or two examples more will show the great importance we compare 1 Thess. v. 23. with Jude, verse 19. we shall find that the spirit, of applying the poetical parallelism to the study of the New mentioned in the former passage, does not denote any third constituent part of man, distinct from the soul and body, but that it means the spiritual Testament:strength bestowed, through the grace of the Holy Spirit, in our renovation and sanctification; for the apostle Jude, speaking of false teachers, describes them as sensual, NOT HAVING THE SPIRIT, that is as persons abandoned to follow their own evil ways, unrenewed and unsanctified by the Holy Spirit. εσκοτισμένοι τη διάνοια οντες· απηλλωτριωμένοι της ζωής του Θεού: That is, adjusting their parallelism :— Again, Being darkened in the understanding, και εζήτουν αυτόν κρατήσαι και εφοβήθησαν τον όχλον; εγνωσαν γαρ, ότι προς αυτούς την παραβολην ειπε And they sought to seize him; And they feared the people; For they knew, that against them he spake the parable; That is, adjusting the parallelism, and giving the particle xa, In 1 Cor. iv. 5. we read, Judge nothing before the time, until the Lord come, who both will bring to light the hidden things of darkness, and will make manifest the counsels of the hearts. Now here is a parallelism of members, but the fundamental meaning is, that God judges the counsels of men; he therefore judges without respect of persons, and with unerring impartiality. The apostle's design was to show that it is impossible for men to perceive and judge the counsels of one another. Thus again, words are also construed with words, and things with things, in order that an enumeration may be made of the species, kinds, or parts of the whole; as in the divine ode of the Virgin Mary contained in Luke i. 46-55, in which the specific displays of divine power are enumerated. God hath put down the proud, but exalteth them of low degree, &c. The diligent reader will observe, that this place describes the power of God, in whose hands is the distribution of prosperity and adversity; and that all these parts or species are, in an exposition, to be joined together with the proposition exhibiting the genus or kind, viz. that prosperity and adversity are in the hand of the Almighty. (2.) Although the Sacred Scriptures, PRIMARILY coming from God, are perfectly consistent, and harmonize throughout; 1 Sacred Literature, p. 55. In p. 56. Bishop Jebb has given a passage from Euthymius's Commentary on Psal. lxxxiv. 7. which is so truly beautiful, that we cannot help inserting it. Εκ δυναμεως εις δύναμιν εξ αρίτης εἰς αρετην· οἷον, εκ ταπεινοφροσύνης εις πένθος, εκ δε πένθους εις κατανύξιν και ούτως εκ ταύτης εις εκείνην προκόπτοντες, αναβήσονται προς την ακρώρεια σιν δύναμιν δε την αρετήν εκάλεσεν, ὡς ισχυροποιούσαν τον μετιόντα αυτήν: "Froin strength to strength; from virtue to virtue: for example, from lowliness of mind to mourning; from mourning to contrition; and thus advancing from one attainment to another, they shall ascend the summit of the mountain. The psalmist calls virtue strength, because it makes him strong who attains it.""Perhaps," the learned prelate remarks, "each grada tion of goodness may be accounted, as it were, a fortress or stronghold upon the way: a secure stage in the pilgrimage of virtue." 2 Jebb's Sacred Literature, p. 198. This elegant critic has thrown more light than all the commentators extant on that very obscure passage, Matt. xv. 3-6. by exhibiting it in the form of an introverted parallelism (see pp. 244-248.); and also on that very difficult portion of the New Testamentthe song of Zacharias (Luke i. 67-79.), by dividing it according to the poetical parallelism. See Sacred Literature, pp. 403-417. [ii] But the propriety of this canon will particularly appear, if we com pare the parallel passages of the same author, in preference to every other sacred writer. For instance, in Rom. iii. 24. Saint Paul, when treating of our justification in the sight of God, says, that we are justified freely by his grace; now that this is to be understood of the free favour of God towards us, and not of any quality wrought in us, is evident from Eph. ii. 4, 5. 2 Tim. i. 9. and Tit. iii. 5. 7. in which passages our salvation by Jesus Christ is expressly ascribed to the great love wherewith God loved us-to his own purpose and grace-and to his mercy and grace. (3.) Besides the kindred dialects, much assistance will be derived, in studying the parallelisms of Scripture, from a diligent comparison of the Greek Septuagint version with the New Testament; as the latter was very frequently cited by Jesus Christ and his apostles, and was constantly used in the synagogues during the apostolic age, as well as by the Gentile converts to Judaism. Thus the force of our Saviour's expression in Luke xii. 42. (giving a pertion of meat OTTOμSTPION in due season) will best appear if we compare it with the Septuagint version of Gen. xlvii. 1, 2, where we are told that Joseph (when Pharaoh had constituted him intendant-general of Egypt) certain portion of corn for each person; TETTO, the very exsupplied his father and his brothers, and all his father's household, with a pression used by St. Luke. It was usual for the stewards of great families, in ancient times, to measure out to each slave his allotted portion of com every month. Again, in Luke xv. 13. the younger son is said to have taken his journey into a far country, andμnoi is %uper sexxpay; an expression, Grotius remarks, which is singularly appropriate for in the Septua gint version of Psal. Ixxiii. 27. those who have wilfully cast off the fear of God are said xxрuveiν aжо тou sou imuтous, to withdraw themselves afar from God. (4.) Whenever the mind is struck with any resemblance, in the first place consider whether it is a true resemblance, and whether the passages are sufficiently similar; that is, not only whether the same word, but also the same thing, answers together, in order to form a safe judgment concerning it. It often happens that one word has several distinct meanings, one of which obtains in one place, and one in another place. When, therefore, words of such various meanings present themselves, all those passages where they occur are not to be immediately considered as parallel, unless they have a similar power. Thus, if any one were to compare Jonah iv. 10. ished in a night, and which in the original Hebrew is terined the son of a (where mention is made of the gourd which came up in a night, and pernight) with 1 Thess. v. 5., where Christians are called, not children of the night, but children of the day, it would be a spurious parallel. (5.) Where two parallel passages present themselves, the clearer and more copious place must be selected to illustrate one that is more briefly and obscurely expressed. The force and meaning of a word can never be ascertained from a single passage; but if there be a second passage on the same subject, we have a criterion by which to ascertain the writer's meaning. Or, if we consider the subject discussed by him, we shall find that he has in one part touched which he has omitted nothing that could more copiously illustrate the forvery slightly on topics which are elsewhere more fully explamed, and in mer place. In availing ourselves, therefore, of a parallel passage to eluci date any part of the inspired writings, it is evident that the clearer places, and those which treat more fully on a subject, are to be considered as fundamental passages, by which others are to be illustrated. Thus, in Hosea xii. 4. there is an allusion to the patriarch Jacob's wrestling with an angel of God; now this place would be extremely obscure, if the whole history of that transaction were not more amply related in Gen. xxxii. 24–31. (6.) Other things being equal, a nearer parallel is preferable to one that is more remote. If a writer elsewhere repeat the same forms of speech, and also discuss in another part a subject which he has but slightly touched in one place, it is better to explain that place from the same writer, than from parallel passages collected from others. But where a writer supplies nothing by which to illustrate himself, recourse must in that case be had to such as were contemporary with him, or nearly so, and from their compositions similar passages are to be collected. Thus Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, and Amos, having been nearly contemporary with each other, and having uttered predictions relative to nearly the same events, mutually elucidate each other, as the prophecy of Ezekiel illustrates that of Jeremiah, and rice versa. This rule will apply generally, unless the more remote writer define obscure places better, or continue and adorn the subject discussed. (7.) No assistance is to be derived from similar passages, the sense of which is uncertain. For if such passages be cited to explain another that is obscure, they will be of no use whatever, however similar they may be, but equally ob scure. It is to little purpose, therefore, to accumulate similar passages where the same name of a tree, plant, herb, &c. is mentioned, and especially where there is no note or mark attached to it; for several of the birds, beasts, fishes, trees, plants, precious stones, and musical instruments, mentioned in the Scriptures, are either unknown to us, or cannot now be precisely distinguished.1 (8.) The exercise of comparison should be often repeated. "To the observance of the principles above stated, frequent practice must be added, so that the interpreter may easily discern what passages are similar, and how he may rightly compare them, and judge of them. It will be very useful, here, to consult good interpreters, not only of the Scriptures, but of profane authors; that where they carry these principles into practice, and plainly make a right and skilful application of them, we may learn to imitate thein, by attentively considering the manner in which they attain to the understanding of things which are obscure or ambiguous. By frequently renewing this exercise, we may learn to go in the same path in which they have travelled. The books of the New Testament present more inducement to repeat this exercise very frequently, than any other books. For (1.) They are of all books the most important. (2.) They are not only all of the same idiom in general, but they have reference to the same subject, viz. the developement of Christianity. They originated, too, from contemporary writers, possessed of views, feelings, and languages that were alike. Hence comparison has more force in illustrating the New Testament, than in the illus tration of either Greek or Latin authors; many of whom, that agreed with each other in all the circumstances just stated, cannot be found. But (3.) To all who admit that the same Holy Spirit guided the authors of the New Testament, and that their views of religion, in consequence of this, must have been harmonious, the inducement to comparison of various parts and passages with each other, in order to obtain a correct view of the whole, must be very great; and the additional force of the evidence arising from comparison, on account of the really harmonious views of the writers, must make this exercise an imperious duty of every theologian.” (9.) Many parallel passages should be compared. "To compare one passage only is often insufficient, whether you are endeavouring to find the usus loquendi by the aid of parallel passages, or by testimony derived from the nature of the subject and from examples. Specially is this the case, when we are investigating the sense of words that have a complex or generic meaning, made up of various parts. In this case, comparisons should be made from numerous passages, until we perceive that what we are seeking is fully and entirely discovered. "Suppose the words occurs in a particular passage, where you are doubtful what sense should be applied to it. First, you call to mind, that IT is a generic word, having several meanings related to each other, but still diverse, as species under the genus. You wish to determine how many species of meanings has; and in order to accomplish this, many passages where it is used must be compared, in order that you may know whether all the species are found. This being done, you proceed to compare them with the passage under investigation, and see which will fit it. And in this way all generic words must be investigated, before the generic idea can be determined."s (10.) It will be of great use to collect and reduce into alphabetical order all those similar passages in which the same forms of speech occur, and the same things are proposed in a different order of narration: but care must be taken to avoid the accumulation of numerous passages that are parallel to each other in forms of speech, or in things which are of themselves clear and certain; for such accumulations of parallel places savour more of a specious display of learning than real utility.4 The best and most certain help by which to find out parallel passages is, unquestionably, the diligent and attentive perusal of the Scriptures, repeated after short intervals of time, and accompanied by the committal of the most difficult passages to writing, together with such other passages as are either similar in words or in things, and which tend to throw any light on obscure places. But, in instituting such parallelisms, care must be taken not to multiply references unnecessarily for mere show rather than for their practical utility, and also that they do not violate the analogy of faith. For instance, Rom. iii. 28. and James ii. 24. are not in every respect parallel to each other; because in the former passage Saint Paul is treating of justification in the sight of God-a doctrine which numerous passages of Scripture most clearly testify to be by faith alone; whereas Saint James is speaking of justification in the sight of men, who form their judgment of a man by his works. 1 See some instances of this observation in Mr. Pilkington's "Remarks on several Passages of Scripture," pp. 83-90. 2 Stuart's Elements of Interpretation, p. 40. 3 Ibid. p. 41. Morus in Ernesti Inst. Interpret. Nov. Test. tom. i. pp. 97-110. Bauer, Herm. Sacr. pp. 163–174. J. B. Carpzov. Prima Linea Herm. Sacr. pp. 45-47. Pfeiffer, Hermeneut. Sacr. c. xi. Franckii Prælect. Hermeneut. pp. 95. et seq. 153. et seq. Rambach, Inst. Herm. Sacræ, pp. 362-381. 651, 652.; also his Exercit. Herm. pp. 209-219. J. E. Pfeiffer, Inst. Herm. Sacr. pp. 278-305. Jahnii Enchiridion Herm. Generalis, pp. 81-94.; and Chladenius's Institutiones Exegetica, pp. 399-406, Schæfer, Institutiones Scripturisticæ, pars ii. pp. 77-84. Dr. Gerard's Institutes of Biblical Criticism, pp. 148-157. Arigler, Hermeneutica Biblica, pp. 181-191. Alber, Inst. Herm. Nov. Test. pp. 132-136. For an account of the principal editions of the Bible with Parallel References, see the BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX to the second Volume, PART I. Chap. I. SECT. VI. § 3.; and for Concordances, see PART II. CHAP. VI. SECT. I. §2. ANCIENT VERSIONS. Observations on the respective merits of the several ancient versions.-Rules for consulting them to the best advantage. Or the Ancient Versions of the Holy Scriptures, and their uses in sacred criticism, an account has already been given in pages 262-280. 286, 287. and it may here be remarked, that, to those who are able to consult them, these versions afford a very valuable aid in the interpretation of the Bible: for they were the works of men, who enjoyed several advantages above the moderns, for understanding the original languages and the phraseology of Scripture. instances will illustrate the propriety of this remark. One or two iii. 15.), God said to the serpent that beguiled our first parents, 1. In the first promulgation of the Gospel to mankind (Gen. And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed, and IT (that is, the seed of the woman, as our authorized translation rightly expounds it) shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel. But in the Anglo-Romish version, after the Latin Vulgate (which has IPSA conteret caput tuum), it is rendered, SHE shall bruise his head, as if a woman should do it; which the Romanists interpreting of the Virgin Mary, ascribe to her this great victory and triumph over sin and Satin, and are taught to say in their addresses to her, "Adoro et benedico sanctissimos pedes tuos, quibus antiqui serpentis caput calcâsti;" that is, "I adore and bless thy most holy feet, whereby thou hast bruised the head of the old serpent." That this rendering of the Romanists is erroneous, is proved by the Septuagint Greek version, by the Chaldee paraphrase, and by the Syriac version, all of which refer the pronoun IT to the seed of the woman, and not to the woman herself. 2. As the expression breaking bread, mentioned in Acts iì. 46., ordinarily means taking food in the Jewish idiom, some ex positors have understood that expression in this sense; but the old Syriac version, executed towards the close of the first or early in the second century, renders it breaking of the Eucharist. We are justified, therefore, in referring the term to the celebration of the Lord's supper among the first Christians (xar xv) in a house appropriated to that purpose. In applying ancient versions, as an auxiliary, to the interpretation of Scripture, it is material to observe, that, since no version can be absolutely free from error, we ought not to rely implicitly on any one translation: but, if it be practicable, the aid of the cognate dialects should be united with reference to a version, in order that, by a comparison of both these helps, we may arrive at the knowledge of the genuine readings and meanings. From inattention to this ascribed to particular versions a degree of authority to which obvious caution, many eminent men have at different times they were by no means entitled. Thus, by many of the fathers, the Alexandrian interpreters were accounted to be divinely inspired, and consequently free from the possibility of mistake; a similar opinion was held by various eminent modern critics, particularly by Isaac Vossius, who asserted the Septuagint to be preferable to the Hebrew text, and to be absolutely free from error! The Church of Rome has fallen into the like mistake with respect to the Vulgate or Latin version, which the Council of Trent declared to be the only authentic translation. Further, versions of versions, that is, those translations which were not made immediately from the Hebrew Old Testament, or from the Greek New Testament, are of no of the original, but only of that version from which they authority in determining either the genuine text or meaning were taken. This remark applies particularly to the AngloSaxon, Old English, Spanish, French, and German translations, whether of the Old or New Testament; which, being made before the sixteenth century, were executed immediately from the Latin and subsequently, even in those examples where they are unanimous in a reading, their united voices are of no more authority than that of the Latin version alone.' In all cases, therefore, which require the aid of a version, either for the purpose of criticism or interpretation, recourse must be had to those translations which, being more ancient or better executed, are preferable to every other. And in this view the following will be found most deserving of attention, not only as uniting the two qualifications of antiquity and Bp. Beveridge's Works, vol. ii. p. 193. vol. ix. pp. 233, 234. Agier Propheties concernant Jésus Christ et l'Eglise, pp. 243, 244. Michaelis, vol. ii p 3. excellence, but also as being more generally accessible to which it may be executed; but it will also supply many students, being for the most part comprised in the Polyglott important helps for the interpretation of Scripture. As, Bibles, which are to be found in almost every public library. however, some of the ancient versions have been altered or 1. The Alexandrian Version is confessedly the most ancient, interpolated in many places, great care must be taken to and, with all its errors and imperfections, contains very much distinguish the modern amendments from the genuine text that is highly valuable, and on this account it has been used of the original ancient translator. The various excellent con by nearly all the more ancient interpreters. With the Sep-cordances that are extant will afford great assistance in finding tuagint should be consulted the fragments of the translations out such parallel words or phrases. executed by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, and also the fifth, sixth, and seventh versions. The version of Aquila, in particular, exhibits a diction similar to that of the New Testament, as he was not very remote from the age of the apostles; and he has some things which may be of especial use in the interpretation of the New Testament. The version of Symmachus is also a valuable hermeneutic aid; as, by translating into pure Greek, he has facilitated the understand-possible, there can be no room left for doubt. ing of Hebrew. II. The Syriac Peschito, whose fidelity as a version, independently of the excellence of its style, has received the highest commendations from Michaelis, is particularly serviceable for the interpretation of the New Testament. Nor is its value inferior in the interpretation of the Old Testament. "Of all the ancient versions,' says a living critic, "the Syriac is the most uniformly faithful and accurate; and as the language so nearly resembles the Hebrew, its value can scarcely be estimated too high." III. The Latin Vulgate, with the exception of the Psalms, deservedly claims the third place. IV. The Targums, or Chaldee Paraphrases, though unequally executed, contain many things that are exceedingly useful, and necessary to be known, especially the paraphrases of Jonathan Ben Uzziel; they not only contribute essentially to the understanding of many difficult passages in the Old Testament, but also throw much light on the interpretation of the New Testament, as well as afford much advantage in arguing with the Jews, because they almost invariably view the prophecies in the same light as Christians do, as referring to the Messiah.3 Extracts from them are to be found in all the larger commentaries, and also in the works of Dr. Lightfoot. V. The Jewish Antiquities of Josephus (of whose writings some account is given in page 346. infra) may be reckoned among the ancient versions: for though, on some occasions, he followed the Septuagint, yet he derived his representations of sacred history chiefly from the Hebrew Text, as is evident by his abandoning the sense of that version in very many places. With regard to these he is an evidence of great authority, for he is more ancient than the other translators, except the Alexandrine or Septuagint; the Chaldee was his vernacular dialect; and as he was a learned priest, and subsequently a commander of an army in Galilee during the war with the Romans, he was well versed in all ecclesiastical, civil, and military matters. His readers, however, will find it necessary, not rashly to give credence to all his statements, especially such as are warped in favour of his own nation, or even of the heathens, or such as represent the temple of Solomon by a description taken from that of Herod.4 VI. The other versions made immediately from the Hebrew and Greek originals follow next in order, particularly the Arabic translations of the Old Testament: but no certain dependence can be placed, as an authority, on the Latin translations of the Oriental versions, which are printed in the Polyglott Bibles. It will not however be necessary to consult ancient versions, except in passages that are really difficult, or unless a particular examination of them be instituted for some special object of inquiry. In this case not one or two versions merely should be consulted, but every version that is accessible should be referred to: and all such places should be compared together as are parallel, that is, those passages in which the same word or the same form of speaking respectively occurs; and, where any thing worthy of preservation offers itself, it will materially facilitate future studies to note it either in an interleaved Bible, or, which perhaps is preferable, in an interleaved Lexicon. This practice will not only enable the biblical student to discover and correctly to appreciate the genius of a version, and the ability, or the reverse, with On the critical use of the Syriac version, the reader may consult G. B. Winer's Commentatio de Versionis N. T. Syriacæ Usu Critico cauté instituendo. Erlangæ, 1824. 2 Mr. Holden's Translation of the Book of Proverbs, p. cviii. Hamilton's Introd. to Heb. Script. p. 192. In order to ascertain how far the ancient versions represent correctly the meaning of Hebrew or Greek words, the following rules will be found useful: 1. That meaning is to be taken and received as the true one, which all the versions give to a word, and which is also confirmed by the kindred dialects. Because, the number of testimonies worthy of credit being as great as 2. All those significations, formerly given to Hebrew words, are to be considered as correctly given, which the Septuagint or other Greek translators express by the same or similar Greek words, although no trace of such meaning appear in any Ori ental language: learning of those translators, who can presume to measure the vast copr ousness of the Arabic, Syriac, and other Oriental languages by the few books which in our time are extant in those languages? since no one is sc ignorant as to suppose that all the riches of the Greek and Latin languages which our age happily abounds. With regard to the New Testament, “in are comprised in the very numerous remains of classical literature with cases where the sense is not affected by different readings, or the transla tor might have taken them for synonymous, the evidence of Greek mang For, as no doubt can be entertained of the diligence and scrupulous scripts is to be preferred to that of an ancient version. The same preference is due to the manuscripts wherein the translator has omitted words that appeared of little importance, or a passage in the Greek original is attended with a difficulty which the translator was unable to solve, and therefore either omitted or altered according to the arbitrary dictates of his own judgment."s the more ancient ones, being executed with the greater care 3. Where the versions differ in fixing the sense of a word, and skill, are in the first place to be consulted, and preferred to all others: language was vernacular, we may readily infer that he has expressed with For, the nearer a translator approaches to the time when the original so much the greater fidelity the true signification of words, both primary and proper, as well as those which are derivative and translated. There are, however, some cases in which ancient versions are of more authority than the original itself. Most of the translations of the New Testament, noticed in the preceding pages, surpass in antiquity the oldest Greek manuscripts now extant: and they lead to a discovery of the readings in the very ancient manuscript that was used by the translator. By their means, rather than from the aid of our Greek manuscripts, not one of which is prior to the fourth or fifth century, we arrive at the certain know ledge, that the ancient writings have been transmitted from the earliest to the present age without material alteration; and that our present text, if we except the passages that are rendered doubtful by an opposition in the readings, is the same which proceeded from the hands of the apostles. Whenever the reading can be precisely determined, which the translator manuscript of that period: but as it is sometimes difficult to acquire this found in his Greek manuscript, the version is of equal authority with a absolute certainty, great caution is necessary in collecting readings from the ancient versions." 4. A meaning given to a word by only one version, previded this be a good one, is by no means to be rejected; espe cially if it agree with the author's design and the order of his discourse: For, it is possible that the force and meaning of a word should be anknown to all other translators, and no trace of it be discoverable in the kindred dialects, and yet that it should be preserved and transmitted to posterity by one version. This remark applies chiefly to things which a translator has the best opportunity of understanding from local and other circumstances. Thus the Alexandrine interpreters are the most ample testimony for every thing related in the Old Testament concerning Egypt, while others, who were natives of Palestine, and perhaps deeply skilled in Jewish literature, are the best guides we can follow in whatever belongs to that country. 5. Lastly, "Those versions" of the New Testament, "in which the Greek is rendered word for word, and the idioms of the original, though harsh and often unmeaning in another language, are still retained in a translation, are of more value in point of criticism than those which express the sense of the original in a manner more suitable to the language of the translator." creases in proportion as the translator attends to purity and elegance, and The value of the latter, as far as regards their critical application, de. of course deviates from his original: but their worth is greater in all other respects, as they are not only read with more pleasure, but understood in Michaelis, vol. ii. p. 3. • Ibid. p. 2. Jahn, Introduct. ad Vet. Foed. pp. 116-122. Pictet, Théologie Chr tienne, tom. i. pp. 151, 152. Bauer, Herm. Sacr. pp. 147-162. 301–309. J. P. Carpzov, Prim. Lin. Herm. pp. 62-65. Ernesti, Inst. Interp. N. Test. p. 57. Morus in Ernesti, tom. i. pp. 130, 131. Stuart's Elements, pp. 43. 64. Gerard's Institutes, pp. 107-111. Bishop Lowth's Isaiah, vol. i. pp. lxxxvi. Jahn's Introduction, by Prof. Turner, p. 105. Muntinge, Brevis Expo--xc. 8vo. ed. Pfeiffer, Herm. Sac. c. 14. (Op. tom. ii. pp. 663, 664.) sitio Critices Vet. Foed. pp. 126-129. Arigler, Hermeneutica Biblica, pp. 102--107. general with greater ease. By means of the former we discover the words of the original, and even their arrangement;--but the latter are of no use in deciding on the authenticity of a reading, if the various readings of the passages in question make no alteration in the sense. No translation is more literal than the Philoxenian (or New) Syriac, and none, therefore, leads to a more accurate discovery of the text in the ancient manuscript whence that version was taken; but, setting this advantage aside, the Old Syriac is of much greater value than the New.1 3. SCHOLIASTS AND GLOSSographers. I. Nature of Scholia.-II. And of Glossaries.-III. Rules for consulting them to advantage in the interpretation of the Scriptures. We have already stated that scholiasts and glossographers afford direct testimonies for finding out or fixing the meaning of words: it now remains that we briefly notice the nature of the assistance to be derived from these helps. I. SCHOLIA are short notices on ancient authors, and are of two kinds-exegetical or explanatory, and grammatical. The former briefly explains the sense of passages, and are, in fact, a species of commentary; the latter, which are here to be considered, illustrate the force and meaning of words by other words which are better known. Such scholia are extant on most of the ancient classics, as Homer, Thucydides, Sophoeles, Aristophanes, Horace, Juvenal, Persius, &c. &c. guage; notwithstanding they are sometimes mistaken in the exposition of its Hebraisms. But the Latin fathers, many of whom were but indifferently skilled in Hebrew and Greek, are less to be depended on, and are, in fact, only wretched interpreters of comparatively ill-executed versions Again, our confidence in a scholiast, or in the author of a glossary, increases in proportion to his antiquity, at least in the explanation of every thing concerning ancient history, rites, or civil life. But, in investigating the force and meaning of words, the antiquity of scholia and glossaries proves nothing; as their authors are liable to error, notwithstanding they lived near the time when the author flourished, whose writings they profess to elucidate. It not unfrequently happens that a more recent interpreter, availing himself of all former helps, perceives the force of words much better than one that is more ancient, and is consequently enabled to elicit the sense more correctly. The result, therefore, of our inquiry into the relative value of scholiasts and compilers of glossaries is, that in perusing their labours, we must examine them for ourselves, and form our judgment accordingly, whether they have succeeded, or failed, in their attempts to explain an author.3 $ 4. ON THE TESTIMONY OF FOREIGNERS WHO HAVE ACQUIRED A LANGUAGE. On the Old Testament, we believe, there are no ancient scholia extant: but on the New Testament there are several I. Importance of this testimony.-II. Rules for applying it to collections, which present themselves under three classes. the interpretation of the Scriptures. The homilies of Chrysostom, in particular, abound with these scholia; and from his works, as well as those of Origen and other fathers, the more modern Greeks have extracted what those illustrious men had concisely stated relative to the meaning of words. Similar grammatical expositions, omitting whatever was rhetorical and doctrinal, have been collected from Chrysostom by Theodoret in a commentary on the four teen Epistles of Saint Paul; by Theophylact, in an indifferent commentary on the four Evangelists; and, to mention no more, by Euthymius in a similar commentary executed with better judgment. There are extant numerous collections of this kind of explanations, made from the writings of the fathers, and known by the appellation of Catena, which follow the order of the books comprised in the New Testament. Many such scholia have been published by Matthæi in his edition of the New Testament. 2. Scholia, written either in the margin, within the text, or at the end of manuscripts. 1. Scholia taken from the writings of the Greek fathers, THE testimony of those who, though foreigners, have who in their homilies and commentaries have often briefly ex-acquired a language, are an important help for ascertaining plained the force of particular words. the Usus Loquendi. Thus, the writings of Philo and Josephus, who were Jews, and also those of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, may be used to illustrate the meaning of Greek words; because, although foreigners, they well understood the Greek language. The productions of those writers, indeed, whom by way of distinction we commonly term Pagan Writers, are in various ways highly deserving the attention of the biblical student, for the confirmation they afford of the leading facts recorded in the sacred volume, and especially of the doctrines, institutions, and facts, upon which Christianity is founded, or to which its records indirectly relate. "Indeed it may not be unreasonably presumed, that the writings of Pagan antiquity have been providentially preserved with peculiar regard to this great object, since, notwithstanding numerous productions of past ages have perished, sufficient remains are still possessed, to unite the cause of heathen literature with that of religion, and to render the one subservient to the interests of the other."4 in Many of this description have been published separately by Wetstein the notes to his elaborate edition of the Greek Testament, and particularly by Matthæi in his edition of the New Testament already noticed. 3. Ancient Scholia, which are also exegetical or explanatory; these, in fact, are short commentaries, and, therefore, are discussed infra, in the Appendix to the second volume. We have there Of the value of the heathen writings in thus confirming II. A GLOSSARY differs from a Lexicon in this respect, that the credibility of the Scriptures, very numerous instances have the former treats only of words that really require explabeen given in the early part of this volume. nation, while the latter gives the general meaning of words. seen that the heathen writings substantiate, by an independent The authors of the most ancient Glossaries are Hesychius, and collateral report, many of the events, and the accomSuidas, Phavorinus, Photius, and Cyril of Alexandria. The plishment of many of the prophecies recorded by the inspired celebrated Ernesti selected from the first three of these writ-writers; and that they establish the accuracy of many inciers, and also from the Etymologicom Magnum, whatever dental circumstances which are interspersed throughout the related to the New Testament, and published the result of his Scriptures. "Above all, by the gradually perverted represenresearches at Leipsic, in 1786, in two octavo volumes; from tations which they give of revealed doctrines, and institutions, which Schleusner has extracted the most valuable matter, they attest the actual communication of such truth from time and inserted it in his well known and excellent Greek. Lexi- to time; and pay the tribute of experience to the wisdom and Valuable as these testinecessity of a written revelation." con to the New Testament. illustrate this remark. III. In estimating the value of scholiasts and glosso-monies, from the works of heathen authors, confessedly are, graphers, and also the weight of their testimony, for ascer-facts; they also frequently contribute to elucidate the phrasetheir uses are not confined to the confirmation of Scripture taining the force and meaning of words, it is of importance to consider, first, whether they wrote from their own know-ology of the sacred writers. Two or three instances will ledge of the language, and have given us the result of their own learning, or whether they compiled from others. Almost all the scholia now extant are compiled from Chrysostom, Origen, or some other fathers of the third and fourth centuries; if the scholiast have compiled from good authorities, his labours have a claim to our attention. 1. Pagan writers use words and phrases coincident with, or analogous to, those of the sacred writers, whose meaning they enable us to ascertain, or show us the force and propriety of their expressions. Thus, the sentiment and image of the prophet Isaiah, In proportion, therefore, to the learning of a scholiast (and the same remark will equally apply to the glossographer), he On what part will ye smite again, will ye add correction? The whole head is sick, and the whole heart faint: becomes the more deserving of our confidence: but this point Isa. i. 5. Bp. Lowth's Translation. can only be determined by daily and constant use. The Are exactly the same with those of Ovid, who, deploring his exile to Atticns, Greek fathers, for instance, are admirable interpreters of the says that he is wounded by the continual strokes of fortune, so that there New Testament, being intimately acquainted with its lan-is no space left in him for another wound: 1 Michaelis's Introduction, vol. ii. p. 3. 3 See an account of the principal Catena, in the BIBLIOGRAPHICAL AP PENDIX to the second Volumie, Part II. Chap. V. Sect. III. § 1. Mori Acroases, tom. i. pp. 110-130. Arigler, Hermeneutica Biblica pp. 65. 115-119. Bp. Gray's Connection of Sacred and Profane Literature, vol. i. p. 3. The same prediction occurs in the same words, in Micah iv. 2. The description of well-established peace (Bp. Lowth remarks) by the image of beating their swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning. hooks, is very poetical. The Roman poets have employed the same image. Thus Martial has an epigram (lib. xiv. ep. xiv.) entitled Falx ex ense-the sword converted into a pruning-hook. The prophet Joel has reversed this image, and applied it to war prevailing over peace. And so has the prince of the Roman poets: Non ullus aratro VIRGIL, Georg. lib. i. 506-508. The sickles into barbarous swords are beat.2 Additional examples, finely illustrative of the above remark, may be seen In Bishop Lowth's notes on Isa. viii. 6-8. xi. 6-8. xx. xxix. 4, 5. xxxii. 2. xlv. 2. and xlix. 2. The following cautions will be useful in applying the productions of the Greek and Latin writers to the ascertaining of the usus loquendi. 1. The profane writers are not to be promiscuously used. 2. We must observe in what sense each of the Greek writers uses the expression which occurs in the New Testament, in what places, in what manner, and in what kind of writings. 3. We are not to seek illustration from profane authors of those passages and expressions, which may more properly be explained from Jewish sources. 4. Nor are we to expect from them an explanation of those expressions which are peculiar to the Christian system. 5. They are not to be consulted with a view of proving the entire purity of the style of the sacred writers; nor that the rules, which (it may be found) they observed, should be applied in all cases to determine the sense of the sacred penmen. 6. It is not sufficient, when a single word in a phrase used in the New Testament is found in profane writers, to prove that the latter may properly be cited as an illustration of the former. 7. Some Greek authors may be more advantageously compared with certain writers of the New Testament than with others, as Thucydides with Saint Paul; and particular modes of expression may be more happily illustrated from some authors than from others. 8. Some of the Greek writers may, to a certain extent, be applied to the illustration, not only of the language, but also of the ideas and subjects, of the sacred writers. This, however, must be done with the greatest caution.3 The great benefit which is to be derived from Jewish and Heathen profane authors, in elucidating the Scriptures, is excellently illustrated by the Rev. Dr. Gray [now Bishop of Bristol], in his "Connection between the Sacred Writings and the Literature of Jewish and Heathen Authors, particularly that of the Classical Ages, illustrated." London, 1819, in 2 vols. 8vo. Grotius and other commentators have incidentally applied the productions of the classical writers to the elucidation of the Bible: but no one has done so much in this department of sacred literature, as Elsner, Raphelius, and Kypke, of whose publications an account is given in the Bibliographical Appendix to the second Volume. SECTION II. INDIRECT TESTIMONIES FOR ASCERTAINING THE USUS THE usus loquendi cannot always be found with sufficient certainty by those direct means which have been discussed in the preceding section. Proper evidence is sometimes wanting; sometimes usage is variable or inconstant, even in the same age or in the same writer; or there is an ambiguity of language, or of grammatical forms; or an obscurity covers the thing or subject treated of; or novelty of language occurs; or a neglect of the usus loquendi, which sometimes happens even in the most careful writers. Other means must, there fore, be used, by which the true sense can be elicited. These indirect means it is the object of the present section to state and to illustrate. $1. OF THE CONTEXT. 1. The Context defined and illustrated.-II. Rules for inves tigating the Context. 1. ANOTHER most important assistance, for investigating the meaning of words and phrases, is the consideration of the CONTEXT, or the comparison of the preceding and subsequent parts of a discourse. 1. If we analyze the words of an author, and take them out of their proper series, they may be so distorted as to mean any thing but what he intended to express. Since, therefore, words have several meanings, and consequently, are to be taken in vasubsequent parts will enable us to determine that signification, rious acceptations, a careful consideration of the preceding and whether literal or figurative, which is best adapted to the pas sage in question. A few instances will illustrate this subject, and show not only the advantage, but also the necessity, of attending to the context. (1.) It has been questioned whether those words of the prophet Micaiah (1 Kings xxii. 15.), Go and prosper, for the Lord shall deliver it (Ramoth) into the hand of the king, are to be understood affirmatively according to their apparent meaning, or are to be taken in an ironical and contrary sense? That they are to be understood in the latter sense, the consideration of the context will plainly show, both from the prophet's intention, and from the prophetic denunciation afterwards made by him. Hence it may be inferred that some sort of ironical gesture accompanied Micaiah's prediction, which circumstance ought to be borne in mind by the interpreter of Scripture. wife (Job ii. 9.) is to be understood in a good sense, as Bless (or ascribe (2.) Further, there is a difference of opinion whether the address of Job's glory to) God, and die, or in a different signification, Curse God, and die, as it is rendered in our authorized version. Circumstances show that the lips, and, consequently, his wife had no ground for charging him with inlast is the proper meaning; because as yet Job had not sinned with his dulging a vain opinion of his integrity. divided the judgment of commentators. That the latter animal is intended (3.) Job xli. Whether the leviathan is a whale or a crocodile has also is evident from the circumstances described in the context, which admi rably agree with the crocodile, but can in no respect be applied to the whale for instance, ch. xli. 17, &c. relative to the hardness of his skin, and v. 13-16. concerning his teeth and impenetrable scales. (4.) Once more, it has been doubted whether our Lord's command to his disciples, to provide neither gold nor silver in their purses (Matt. x. 9.), be is evident from the preceding and subsequent parts of the chapter, which à rule of perpetual observation. That it was only a temporary command prove that particular mission to have been only a temporary one; and that as they were to go for a short time through Judea, and then to return to Jesus, he therefore forbade them to take any thing that would retard then progress. 2. The context of a discourse or book in the Scriptures, may comprise either one verse, a few verses, entire periods or sec tions, entire chapters, or whole books. Thus, if 1 Cor. x. 16. be the passage under examination, the preceding and subsequent parts of the epistle, which belong to it, are the eighth, ninth, and tenth chapters. If Isa. li. be the chapter in question, the reader must not stop at the end of it, but continue his perusal to the twelfth verse of ch. lii.; for these together form one subject or argument of prediction, in which the prophet is announcing to his countrymen the certainty of their deliverance and return from the Babylonish captivity. This entire portion ought, therefore, to be read at once, in order to apprehend fully the prophet's meaning. In like manner, the verses from v. 13. of ch. lii. to the end of ch. liii. form a new and entire section relative to the suffer. ings of the Messiah. Here, then, is a wrong division of chapters, to which ▲ See a further illustration of this passage in Vol. I. p. 120 121. |