for his thoughts to contemplate. All these things make him most agreeable to himself, and he takes pleasure in his leisure moments in being alone with himself and in his own society.

(c) BUT A BAD MAN IS HIS OWN WORST ENEMY.

Thus a good man may be said provisionally to be friends with himself.

Yet this is true only so far as men either are, or think themselves, good.

and

workers of

The hopelessly depraved don't even seem to be on friendly terms with themselves, but rather to loathe themselves.

The question however whether a man can or cannot have friendship for himself may be dismissed for the present. It would seem as if he could have it so far as two or more of the above conditions are fulfilled. This is also confirmed by the fact that friendship, when pushed to its greatest length, becomes like the feeling a man entertains for himself. But the traits we have mentioned look as if they were to be found in the majority, bad though they be. Is it not the case, though, that they are to be found only so far as the majority are pleasing in their own eyes and consider themselves to be good? In the case of the wholly bad at any rate unhallowed deeds they are not to be found at all, and don't even appear to be so. They are scarcely to be found at all, even in the bad. Such are at variance with themselves, their wishes pointing in one direction, their desires pulling in another, as is the case with men of imperfect self-control; such choose, in place of what they themselves recognize to be good for them, what is pleasant indeed but harmful, while others of them are induced by cowardice and by sloth to abstain from doing what they really consider to be the best for themselves. Those once more by whom many dreadful deeds have been done and whose wickedness has made them objects of detestation, come to hate life itself and make away with themselves. And bad men seek companions to pass their time with and shun their own company. Disagreeable alike shun as far memories crowd in upon them when they are by themselves, and they have only what is disagreeable to look forward to, while when they are with forget their troubles; having nothing to draw forth them they are conscious of no affection for themselves. Thus also they do not rejoice in their own joys nor grieve over their own sorrows their soul is at strife with itself; part of it is made by its evil nature to grieve over the enjoyments which it is denied while the other part of it rejoices, part of it pulls in this way the other part in that, dragging the man, as it were, asunder. And if it so be, that it is not possible to be pained and pleased at one

While all the bad

as may be their own company.

others they affection in

and the same moment, then we must say that after a very little while the man is pained that he was pleased, and would not wish, if he could help it, to have found such things pleasant to him; for the bad are full of regrets.

We conclude, then, that the bad man does not seem to be friendly disposed even to himself, because he has nothing in him to call forth affection.

But the evil want companions with whom to pass their time and shun their own company; when they are by themselves, unpleasant memories crowd in upon them, unpleasant expectations haunt them; and they forget them when they are with others. Once more the good man more than others rejoices and grieves in sympathy with himself, because his wishes and his desires are at one and his rational nature is not at variance with his emotional. For this reason the same thing is ever painful to him, the same thing ever pleasant, for he is unchangeable as far as may be. The evil are not thus. They have nothing in them to call forth affection and so feel no affection for themselves. Consequently they do not sympathise with themselves in joy or in sorrow. Their soul is at strife with itself, and the irrational nature wars against the rational; the irrational nature is grieved at having to desist from what is evil, but the rational nature does not then share in its grief but is pleased. So is it also in the opposite case. And generally speaking the one part pulls in one direction, the other in the other, dragging the soul asunder. And if we have to admit that it is not possible to be pained and pleased at one and the same time, then we shall say that after a little the soul is pained because just now it was pleased, for it did not wish that such a pleasure should have been felt by it. The evil are full of regrets. It appears, then, that the bad man is not friendlily disposed towards himself, as he has nothing in him to call forth affection.

Goodness will make

(d) PRACTICAL EXHORTATION.

But if to be in such a condition as this is very miserable, we must earnestly shun vice, earnestly try to be good. In this way a man will be at once placed on a friendly footing with himself and be made a friend with his neighbour.

a man friends with himself and with all the world.

If to be in such a case is the height of misery we must shun wickedness with all diligence and strive each one of us to be good and excellent, for by these means we shall be placed on a footing of friendship alike with ourselves and with our neighbours. Seeing, then, that what a man does to himself he should do for his friend likewise-for one ought to love one's friend as oneself-the friend being a second self-it is plain that what the good man wishes and does for himself, these are the obligations of friendship and in them friendship consists.

But the question whether the love a man has for himself is, or is not, friendship, may be dismissed for the present. Friendship implies two or three, as is clear from what we have already said. If a man chooses to call a man's relation to himself friendship, it may be regarded as friendship so far as there are different parts in man and the feelings are at peace with the reason. Moreover, because friendship in its most perfect form approaches the love a man has for himself, this latter also may be called friendship.

ii.-Goodwill.

(a) DIFFERENCE OF GOODWILL FROM FRIENDSHIP AND FROM

AFFECTION.

Goodwill differs from friendship in being felt towards strangers, and without being recognised;

Goodwill is a kind of friendly disposition and yet it is not friendship. It can be felt towards strangers and without being recognised, friendship can not be. This indeed has already been insisted on. Yet it is not affection either. It has no impetuosity or emotion, but these are the concomitants of affection. And affection implies intimacy, whereas goodwill may be conceived on a sudden, which is what happens in the case of combatants in the arena. The spectators grow well-disposed towards them and wish them success, though not prepared to help them. For, as we have said, men become well-disposed on a sudden and feel a liking in a superficial way.

from affection in having no intensity and not implying intimacy.

Goodwill is like friendship, and yet is not friendship. We feel goodwill for those with whom we are not friends, and goodwill may spring up towards a stranger and without the knowledge of the object of it. But this is not possible in the case of friendship, as we have explained above at greater length.

Thus goodwill is not friendship; it does not even seem to be affection. Affection implies a certain impulse and movement towards the object of it. But goodwill is not of this character. The well-disposed wish good to those to whom they are well-disposed, and yet do not seek their company. And again, affection implies intimacy, as it is brought about only by time and intercourse, whereas goodwill may come all on a heap (if one may use the expression,) on those who experience it; which is the way with spectators and the combatants in the arena. The spectators grow well-disposed towards the combatants as soon as they see them winning and give them their good wishes, but they are not prepared to help their efforts, as they have no affection for them from having loved them long and intimately, but were pleased with them the moment they saw them, and so their love is only superficial, and this is the character of goodwill.

(b) RELATION OF GOODWILL TO FRIENDSHIP.

Goodwill is the germ of friendship,

Now goodwill seems to be the originating cause of friendship in the same way as pleasure in the sight of a person is the originating cause of love. No one feels love who is not first pleased with his darling's outward form; and yet he who does take pleasure in another's beauty does not for all that fall in love unless he comes besides to regret his darling's absence and to feel a desire for his presence. In the same way it is not possible for men to be friends without becoming first well-disposed to one another, and yet the well-disposed are not for all that friends. They only get

as far as wishing good to those to whom they are well-disposed, but are not prepared to help them in their efforts or to give themselves trouble on their account.

but requires time and intimacy to mature it into friendship, after which it becomes true friendship,

Hence we might speak of it by a metaphor as inert friendship; yet when it has gone on for a good time and has passed into an intimacy it developes into friendship, friendship of the true kind, not friendship prompted by either pleasure or interest, since goodwill itself does not rest on these. He who has been benefited returns goodwill for the benefits he has received and is right in doing so, but he who wishes to do another a kindness, only in the hope of being enriched by his neighbour, would seem to be well-disposed not so much to his neighbour as to himself; just as a man would scarcely be reckoned a friend, if he serves his neighbour with a view to his own profit.

So as a rule goodwill is felt on account of virtue and kindliness in cases where one man impresses another as noble or brave or something of the kind, as we illustrated by the case of combatants in the

as it is itself called forth by the sight of nobility and excellence.

arena.

Thus then goodwill seems to be the beginning of friendship in the same way as pleasure in the sight of a person is the beginning of love. And just as it is not possible to fall in love without first being charmed by the fair form of the loved object-though you may be charmed without falling in love, for you can only be said to be in love when you miss your darling, if absent, and eagerly desire his presence-in the same way it is not possible for two to become friends without being first well-disposed to one another, but they may be well-disposed without being friends. For the well-disposed wish good to those to whom they are well-disposed, but are not prepared to actively help them or to put themselves to trouble about them. Consequently one might speak of goodwill in metaphorical language as inert friendship, for when time has passed over it and it has grown into intimacy it developes into friendship.

And friendship not for interest nor for pleasure's sake, but friendship which rests on goodness. One man becomes well-disposed to another on account of virtue or excellence, when the one appears noble or brave in the other's eyes, or something of the kind. Whereas he who wishes to do another a good turn for the sake of pleasure or profit is not really well-disposed to that man but to himself, just as he is not a real friend either. In the same way he who wishes good to his benefactor because he has received benefits from him, will be properly speaking well-disposed, but as he is only doing what is just and repaying gratitude for benefits he has received, he seems to be rejoicing not in his friend's excellence but in his own goodness.

We conclude then that goodwill is neither friendship nor affection but a beginning of friendship; but that when coupled with time, intimacy, and the other requisites for friendship, it grows into friendship, friendship too of the kind which rests on goodness and virtue.

iii.—Unanimity.

(a) ITS PROVINCE DETERMINED.

Unanimity differs from mere coincid

ence of opinion,

being coincidence of opinion on practical matters, and points of common interest,

Unanimity also has a friendly character, and this is what distinguishes it from mere coincidence of opinion. This latter might be found among those who are complete strangers to one another. Nor is it customary to speak of those who are of one mind on some special subject, as for instance about the movements of the heavens, as unanimous, for to be unanimous on such points has nothing friendly about it--but we do talk of states as unanimous, when they are of one mind about their interests, and adopt the same line of policy and follow out a common course of action. So that it is on matters of practice that men are unanimous, on practical matters that is to say of importance, and such as concern both parties or all alike. States for instance are unanimous when all the citizens agree that offices should be elective or to make an alliance with the Lacedemonians, or to put Pittacus in power so long as he also wished it himself; but when each one of the citizens wishes to rule in his own person, as is represented in the Phanissæ,' then they fall out. For unanimity does not consist in each wishing for a particular thing for himself, but in all wishing to see it in the same hands. For instance, the people and the upper classes are unanimous when they both wish the best men to be in office, as in that case all alike may get what they desire.

Unanimity also has itself a friendly character and generally accompanies friendship. Unanimity consists not in holding the same views or in mere coincidence of opinion. Such coincidence of opinion might be found among those who are absolute strangers to one another, as there is nothing to prevent their holding the same views on the same subjects and having the same knowledge of the same points, even though they know nothing of one another. But unanimity exists only between those who are associated together and are on a footing of friendship. We speak for instance of states as unanimous, when they are of one mind about their interests and agree upon and carry out the same line of policy.

Unanimity is, then, a coincidence of view in friends, a coincidence of view not on theoretical but on practical matters, and on practical matters of consideration and importance. For in respect of trifles neither states, nor friends, are spoken of as unanimous. For instance we do not talk about men being unanimous about staying at home or going to the market, or doing or saying anything from which no great benefit or harm is likely to result. On all these and such like points no one would say they were unanimous.

But we do use the term where the matters, are important and to the interest of both the friends, or of the state at large: for instance when the whole state is agreed that its magistrates should not be returned to office by lot, or succeed in rotation but should be regularly elected, or when it is agreed to conclude an