has so materially contributed, in extending our commerce and the interests of the country in general. Railways have for some years been the principal consumers, and their formation may so far be considered as making iron reproductive; as they enable the ironmasters to get those supplies of ironstones and ores which, as we have already shown, are in some measure now, and to a greater extent hereafter may be, essential to the support of the manufacture in particular districts, bringing them from parts of the country where, but for this assistance, they would have been utterly useless, except occasionally as

already laid down for its important coal trade, supplied these means, and branches were speedily made to the Cleveland Hills themselves. But for this discovery, some of the principal iron-works of the North of England must have been closed, as the cheap black-bands of Scotland had destroyed the present value of the comparatively expensive argillaceous ironstones of the Newcastle coal fields, which, consequently, could be no longer used. In addition to the supply of existing works, the almost inexhaustible supply within reach led to the erection of iron furnaces at Middlesborough, where three furnaces are already in blast, working almost exclusively from this ore, and others are in process of erection.

"An investigation, at the close of the Exhibition, was rewarded by the discovery, at Higham Ferrers, of a bed of ore many feet in thickness. This led to further examination, and to the discovery of the Northamptonshire deposits, which have latterly attracted so much attention, and which are already becoming extensively worked. It appears to be developed most largely, and to be also of best quality, along the Northampton and Peterborough line of railway, from Higham Ferrers to Hardingstone, near Northampton; and again from Gayton, near Blisworth, to Towcester.

"Its knowledge comes to us at a most opportune moment, to afford to the important South Staffordshire district cheap supplies of ironstone, for the purpose of admixture with its own argillaceous stones. Hitherto the second most important iron district in the kingdom, it could no longer have maintained its ground against other localities, had it not been for this discovery. South Wales had its cheap and good coals, its black-bands, and its supplies of sea-borne hæmatites, as well as its own argillaceous ironstones; Scotland, its beds of black-bands; and the North of England its oolitic ores: but, up to the present time, South Staffordshire had only its argillaceous ironstones, always the most expensive to raise, with such admixture of hæmatite and North Staffordshire stone as the great cost of carriage would permit. Now the Northamptonshire oolites will add to its supplies, and make it to hold its place amongst the other competing districts.

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Any survey of the general iron-making resources of the kingdom would be most incomplete which did not include our different coal-fields, not simply as productive of vast supplies of iron in their argillaceous and black-band

1 From inquiries made by the writer, it does not appear that this ironstone is in favour with the South Staffordshire ironmasters; on the contrary, many have given up the use of it.

building materials. Railways have already been mentioned; but at one view, to give an idea of the enormous extent and bearings of these undertakings in this country alone (for the iron for railways throughout the world is supplied by Great Britain), we will draw attention to the following state

ment:

Mr. Cardwell, the President of the Board of Trade, in ironstones, but also as furnishing that class of fuel now almost exclusively employed for smelting purposes.

"Of these, several as, for instance, Northumberland and Durham, Lancashire, Gloucestershire, and Somersetshire-do not contain, in their coal measures, any important supplies of ironstone, and are therefore only connected with our iron manufacture by means of their beds of coal."

By parliamentary returns, it appears that in the year 1851, the following quantities of coal, cinder, and culm, were exported from the United Kingdom to foreign countries, and to the British settlements abroad: also, in the same year, the quantity of coal conveyed to London:

Tons.

moving, on the 6th April, 1854, for leave to bring in a Bill for the better regulation of the traffic upon railways and canals, stated, that there had been 232 companies incorporated. The number of miles authorized to be constructed was 12,700, of which 7,686 miles were opened. The number of passengers by the last return was 95,000,000; the number of persons employed in their transit, 80,000; the amount of capital authorized was 350,000,000l., and the amount actually raised was 264,000,000l.; the last year's return of traffic being 16,700,000%*

* By the Census of the United States, it appears that, on the 1st January, 1852, the extent of railroads completed and in operation was 10,843 miles, and the number of miles in course of construction, 10,898 miles; making a total of 21,741 miles—on the 1st January, 1853, there were in operation 13,266 miles, and in course of construction 12,681 miles; together 25,947 miles.

The average cost per mile of the works completed on the 1st January, 1852, 34,370 dollars.

“For the purpose of comparison with the foregoing, the subjoined statement has been prepared, showing the number of miles of railroads, with their costs, according to the most generally received authorities in all countries of Europe in which these improvements have been to any considerable extent produced:

"This table was made before the opening of the railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow, which, being nearly 400 miles in length, would add largely to

The next and more enduringly important consumer is the shipping interest:

To pass through the Liverpool Docks, which extend for some miles filled with ships, and see the anchors, chain cables, and parts of the rigging, made of iron, and occasionally an iron ship, any one with common observation must be struck with the advantages possessed by this country in having an abundant and cheap supply of this most essential material, and the more so, when not far from these docks lies the Chinese Junk, with its primitive wooden anchor. The heavy and almost exclusive duties levied on iron in many foreign countries, gave a great advantage to our ship-building trade, as may be more fully seen in the chapter on the United States of America. The alteration in our corn duties, and in fact the general tariff, assisted by the desire to procure rails, has occasioned some reduction, which, aided by the large make, and at the same time depressed prices, has enabled them to receive our iron in large quantities, and in some degree placed foreigners upon a more equal footing with ourselves; but we still bear the palm.

By a parliamentary return of 1852, relating to the increase and extent of our shipping, it appears that there were in 1814 24,418 vessels belonging to the British Empire, the tonnage 2,616,965, and employing 172,786 men; in 1851 the ships had increased to 34,244, amounting to 4,332,085 tons, and giving employment to 240,928 men.

In the same year 1851, there were 88 steam-vessels built and registered together 23,527 tons.

The total number of steam-vessels belonging to the British Empire, 1,386, tonnage 204,654.

The number of vessels built and registered in the British Empire, from the year ending the 5th January, 1815, to the 5th January, 1851, a period of 36 years, was 49,254, tonnage, 6,388,864, making an annual average of 1368 vessels; these statistics so far as refers to Russia. In France also, during the past season, 1,500 miles of railway, in addition to that stated in the table, were opened, making the whole extent of railway in that country in July last (1852) about 2,500 miles; and it is expected that, during the course of the ensuing year, 1800 miles additional will be completed."

and this may be taken as a fair average. There was a falling off in 1815, and from 1821 to 1824, which was made up by a corresponding increase in 1827, and from 1839 to 1842.

With regard to the iron required for these vessels, we have in the first place anchors. Dr. Ure says, "The weight of anchors for different vessels is proportioned to the tonnage; a good rule being to make the anchor in hundredweights one-twentieth of the number of tons of the burden; thus a ship of 1,000 tons would require a sheet anchor of 50 cwts. Ships of war are provided with somewhat heavier anchors.”

Chain Cables.-These require, and will admit of a more extended notice.

The application of strong iron chains or cables to the purposes of navigation, is a late and an important discovery. It is singular, indeed, that this application should not have been made at a much earlier period. On rocky bottoms, or where coral is abundant, a hempen cable speedily chafes, and is often quite destroyed in a few months, or perhaps days. A striking instance of this occurred in the voyage of discovery under the orders of M. Bougainville, who lost six anchors in the space of nine days, and narrowly escaped shipwreck; a result, says that able seaman, which would not have happened "si nous eussions été munis des quelques chaines de fer. C'est une précaution que ne doivents jamais oublier tous les navigateurs destinés à de pareils voyages." The work from which this extract is taken ("Voyage autour du Monde") was published in 1771; and yet it was not till nearly forty years after that any attempt was made practically to profit by so judicious a suggestion. The difficulties in the way of importing hemp from the year 1808 to the year 1814, and its consequent high price, gave the first great stimulus to the manufacture of iron cables.

The first avowed proposal to substitute iron cables for cordage in the sea-service was made by Mr. Slater, surgeon, of the navy, who obtained a patent for the plan in 1808, though he does not seem to have had the means of carrying it into effect. It was Captain Brown of the West India merchant service who, in 1811, first employed chain cables