summer is usually fairly cool, the average temperature 76° F. in the shade; the highest temperature in the sun is 100°-112° F. The rainfall is inconsiderable; the sky clear; evenings and nights cool. The range of temperature in the twenty-four hours is considerable. The mercury falls from 112° in the sun to 54° 60° at night. At the lower elevations, for instance, in the Valley of the Arax, the climate is milder. In winter the thermometer rarely stands so low as 23°. About Bayazid, in summer, the thermometer registers 135° in the

sun.

The inhabitants of the Vilayet of Erzeroum are composed for the most part of three races-Turks, Khurds, and Armenians. The first are grouped mainly in the northern part of the province, the second in the southern portion, and the third in the southeastern portion. The population of the province is 610,744 males (1,221,488 of both sexes), of these 427,712 are Mahometans and 183,042 Christians. "Judging from these figures, the composition of the population would appear to favour the maintenance of Mussulman power and the stability of their rule; on a nearer view, however, matters appear in a different light. The religious hatred which exists between the Sunites and the Shiites, which forms one of the elements of weakness of the Turkish empire, must be taken into account; also the fact that the Turkish government has not hitherto been able to bring into subjection the wandering Khurdish tribes, or to rely on their assistance; they therefore constitute an element always ready to turn on the side of the enemies of Turkey."

The Khurds (207,049 men), both in language and descent, are a distinct race, allied neither to Turks nor Tartars. Inhabiting the southern portion of Trans-Caucasia, the southern and south-eastern part of Anatolia, and the western part of Persia, they divided into

are

many

tribes

or

communities, ruled over by hereditary chiefs whose authority is by no means absolute. Some of the Khurds have acquired the rudiments of civil life, and occupy themselves with agriculture or handicraft, but the majority lead a wandering life, which has intense fascinations for them. In summer they roam over the mountains with their flocks and herds, and in winter retire to mud huts, built in deep valleys and ravines, where they vegetate until spring. Their ideas of religion are loose. They call themselves Mahometans of the sect of Omar, but of the tenets of Mahometanism they know little, and have only adopted some of the Mussulman ceremonies. They drink wine. Among the Khurds are Yezidies or Devilworshippers, who profess an equal hatred for both Christians and Mussulmans.

The Khurds are described as a tall and warlike race, but untamed, and unfitted for regular soldiers; their armed force is composed exclusively of mounted men. In former wars the Khurds assisted the Russians, and although not much to be depended on, were found useful as scouts and guides.

Of the Turks (189,950 men) a Russian writer has naturally not much good to say. "The weak and apathetic character of the Turk has long been acknowledged. The Turks of the old school, who remember the past glories of the Turkish empire, display, in place of the warlike enthusiasm of their ancestors, a passive hatred of the Christian world, combined with an intense dislike of all change. The young Turks, who have acquired some rudiments of civilisation chiefly from European adventurers, have adopted all the vices of semi-civilisation. must, however, be allowed that the Turks possess one merit-being the masters of subject races, they do not resort to shuffling and cringing, but act openly and above-board; their character is therefore free from

It

those blemishes which are characteristic of the oppressed-blemishes so deeply ingrained in the characters of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews of Asia Minor."

The

Armenians (157,583 men). numbers of this race inhabiting Asiatic Turkey have diminished of late days. Since 1829 numbers are said to have emigrated to Russian territory. Their lot does not appear to be a pleasant one; they are oppressed by both Turks and Khurds. The population of Armenia is employed mainly in agriculture and tending cattle. The

soil in places is extremely rich, returning crops of from fifty to a hundredfold. The population have always abundance of wheat and barley in their granaries. "The produce of the country might be very much increased if a remedy were found for the unfavourable conditions in which the province is placed, viz., the want of a market, the insecurity of property, the heavy taxation, &c. At present 3,000,000 poods of wheat, 2,000,000 poods of barley, 700,000 poods of rye are grown annually in the province. Besides this Armenia produces cotton, flax, hemp, tobacco, and wine, and in some parts rice and olives; added to this, during the greater part of the year there is excellent pasturage." The country is not rich in wood, and a lack of fuel appears to be one of the drawbacks to its development; but coal has been found in Asia Minor. Sheep and cattle abound, but there is a lack of horses: the numbers are said to be-sheep, 3,000,000; goats, 1,000,000; horned cattle, 500,000; horses, 97,000.

The mineral wealth of Armenia is said to be great, but, with the exception of some salt works and stonequarries, quite unworked. No attempt is made to work up raw material; the only factory in the province is one for making boots for the army. As regards the two principal fortresses, Erzeroum, situated about four miles

1 A pood forty pounds English.

from the Euphrates, has a population of 60,000 inhabitants. It is a strongly fortified town, with a bastioned enceinte, a citadel, and detached forts flanking the approaches. The parapet of the fortress is of earth, from 25 to 30 feet thick; the ditch 77 feet broad, and from 20 to 24 feet deep. The citadel is of stone, in the centre of the town, and is used as a magazine and arsenal; it is not considered capable of making a prolonged defence against modern artillery. The Russians took Erzeroum in 1829, but it was then weakly fortified.

The fortifications of Kars, a town of 20,000 inhabitants, have been improved after each war between Russia and Turkey; they now consist of the old fortifications round the town (these are of little account), a citadel, and twelve detached outworks of strong profile, placed on well-selected sites round the town in a circle whose radius is about 3,000 yards. Kars is in fact an intrenched camp. It is divided into two parts by the Kars river.

It was not intended to burden this article with military details, but the following extract from the Petersburg paper of the 14th of this month (June) may interest non-military readers, as the situation is very clearly defined. The article is a long one and gives a detailed account of the fortifications round Kars; it concludes as follows:

"Regarding the fortifications of the Kars intrenched camp, from the point of view of attack and defence, we come to the following conclusions

"Its strong points are: 1. The favourable situation of the heights on which the works are placed, which command the surrounding country. 2. The mutual support afforded by the works to one another by artillery fire. 3. The rocky soil rendering siege and mining operations difficult.

"The weak points may be thus summed up :

66

"1. The straggling nature of the defences caused by their being cut in

two by the deep ravine through which the Kars river flows, and the too great extension of the line of defence. 2. The absence of ditches to some of the works. 3. The difficulty of repairing damage to parapets, owing to the lack of earth. 4. the absence in some of the works of flanking defence for the ditches. 5. The insufficiency of shell-proof accommodation for men and stores.

The barracks can accommodate some 3,000 men, and the magazines are not built to hold more than 50,000 poods of wheat, which is barely four weeks' allowance for the garrison. 6. The absence of water in most of the works and the difficulty of obtaining it from the Kars river. 8. The insecurity of the powder magazines from an enemy's fire. To this we may add the defence of Kars is rendered more difficult by the presence of a large civil population, who, in case of a blockade or a siege, will have to be fed from the garrison magazines."

Asiatic Turkey, as a field for military operations, is thus described :"Regarded from a military point of view, that part of Asiatic Turkey which adjoins our frontier is by no means unfavourable for military operations; the population generally is not favourable to the Turkish rule; the resources of the country in corn, cattle, and pasturage are abundant, and there will be no lack of supplies if the inhabitants, finding they have nothing to fear from the army, remain in their villages and supply our troops on payment. The climate is healthy, and suited for the cantonment of troops if supplied with tents. army can move along fairly spacious valleys in which they will generally find roads; the mountain passes, it is true, are difficult, and the country well suited for an obstinate defence. In conclusion," adds the Russki Invalid, "to capture Kars and Erzeroum we shall be compelled to exert our utmost efforts."

The

It is hoped that the above summary has given a fair idea of a portion of

Asiatic Turkey; it shows at any rate the careful way in which the Russian authorities have caused it to be examined before invading it. Should the invasion prove successful, and the Russians decide on retaining the province they have gained-we shall hear debated frequently enough the question-How will this affect England? The question is mainly a commercial one, and hinges on the significance of Russia's having a grip on the land and river communications between Europe and Central Asia, through Asia Minor and Syria.

The possession of Erzeroum will give her at once the main road to Persia from the Black Sea and the head waters of the Euphrates. More than forty years ago Captain Chesney, in his report on the navigation of the Euphrates, called attention to the importance of Erzeroum, and even then looked on the Russians at Tiflis as dangerous rivals to us in the markets of Central Asia. Diarbekir is distant from Erzeroum, as the crow flies, some 120 miles, and is connected with it by roads. From Diarbekir there is a road, which was traversed by Von Moltke in 1837, to Biredschik, the point at which the Euphrates becomes navigable, and the station selected by Chesney for his steamers. The road, it is true, passes through the Mesopotamian desert, and there is no reason to suppose at present that the Russians purpose pushing so far; and even should they do so-and, to go a step farther, should they place their steamers on the Euphrates, and open up the line from the Persian Gulf to the Syrian port of Scanderoon, through Aleppo, which Chesney considered quite feasible, and strongly urged on our Government-would this compromise our interests, or would it be a benefit to mankind? The point is one more for commercial men to decide on than for diplomatists or soldiers. This much is certain it is a necessity of national existence that a country should take action when