trate its application by the improvement of some of the finest specimens of writing in the works of the great masters of composition and oratory who flourished at the junction of the two centuries. The following is the general statement of the rule : Rule for Literary Composition. Of all the ancient languages, and perhaps of all languages in existence, the Latin is the most inverted, and most contrary to the natural order of cause and effect. Take for example such a simple expression as pomum da mihi; this literally translated according to the order of the words is an apple give me; whereas, the proper English is give me an apple, according to the natural order of the transaction, that is, of cause "Write every sentence naturally and implicitly in the order and effect. In like manner, in the celebrated answer to the of cause and effect; in other words, designate objects suc-pilot, Cæsarem vehis, that is, Cæsar you carry, the natural order is cessively as they give impressions to the organs of sense; and inverted, you carry indicating the operation, and Cæsar the record ideas, emotions, and passions, as they are generated or object of the operation; you, the pilot being the carrier, and Cæsar the thing carried. In the order of cause and effect, the words are you carry Cæsar. excited in the mind." This rule, although it be unique in its application, must be modified according as physical or metaphysical objects are to be expressed; and its use must be regulated according as the mind, in its philosophical investigations, traces objects and their relations in their natural or physical order. Moreover, in poetical compositions, it must be still more modified, according as the mind ascends into the lofty flights of imagination, or yields to the proper sway of the passions; for in these cases, the writer can frequently reach the expression of the causes through that of the effects. Let us first take some easy examples of the application of the rule. Thus, in the sentence "obedience leads to happiness and virtue," the first part, "obedience leads to," is correct, as expressing the cause of the "happiness and virtue; but the latter part is not correct, because virtue is the cause of happiness; the sentence therefore should read thus, "obedience leads to virtue and happiness." This sentence, however, does not fully express the sequency or chain of cause and effect, and the complete sentence would be as follows: "Obedience leads to virtue, and virtue to happiness." In the following sentence, the ideas which are expressed follow the natural order of cause and effect, and it is therefore correct: "The high sense of honour and the zealous patriotism of the Spaniards may possibly effect the downfall of the assassin of the human race, and lead to the emancipation of Europe." Here, "honour is placed before "patriotism," because the former is the general quality, and the latter the particular quality springing out of it; and because there can be no true patriotism which is not preceded by the sentiments of honour in the mind. Also, the "downfall of the tyrant" must properly go before the "emancipation of Europe," because Europe could not be emancipated until the tyrant was destroyed. The order of cause and effect in composition is in fact the peculiar genius of the English language; and in this respect it differs greatly from all the languages of antiquity. Let us take a few examples to illustrate this: in the first book of Moses, called Genesis, perhaps the oldest book in the world, the first sentence according to the Hebrew arrangement is as follows: "In the beginning, created God, the heaven and the earth." Here the order of cause and effect is not observed as in our authorised translation; for the name of the great cause of all, God, is put after the verb "created" instead of before it, as in English; thus, "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." In the Greek copy of the Scriptures, called the Septuagint, the Hebrew order is exactly followed; but the nature of these two languages is such that this inversion of the natural order of cause and effect, can produce no mistake, because the form of the word translated God is such as to demand that it should be considered first in the proper order of sequency. The English language, however, being almost entirely independent of forms, in its nouns and verbs, it is absolutely necessary that the order of cause and effect should be observed; were this neglected, the result would be utter confusion and gross perversion of the language. It is true that in many cases the Hebrew mode of inversion is followed even in our authorised translation, but it is in those cases where no possible mistake can take place. Thus in the book of Job, which is by some reckoned even older than the books of Moses, we have the expression literally translated from the Hebrew, Then answered Bildad the Shuhite, and said, instead of Then Bildad the Shuhite answered and said. Much of this inversion, which is natural to the Hebrew, will be found in the authorised translation of the Old Testament. In Homer, the oldest book next to the Bible, the Iliad begins thus, The wrath sing, O goddess, instead of O goddess, sing the wrath, as it would be in English, and in the natural order of cause and effect. chief causes of the difficulty felt by all students in learning The inversion of the words of the Latin tongue is one of the that language, as every one who has read some of its masterpieces well knows; and the relation of cause and effect seems to be so little regarded by its most eminent writers, that a literal translation, at least in the order of the words and sentences, is in general a matter of utter impossibility. Hence arose the practice, in the last century, of issuing editions of the Classics, with the natural order of the words and sentences arranged alongside of the text; this was particularly the case with those editions published in France, with the phrase in usum Delphini on the title-page. In referring to the rule above laid down, the editor, or rather author, of it states some additional considerations which must be kept in mind as forming part of it, although not particularly included in its enunciation. For instance, the mention of the circumstances of place and time, which he says ought to precede the relation of the actions or events that took place in them; and the statement of conditions ought always to precede those arrangements or events that depend upon them. Thus, it will be evident that the observance of this rule, with these additional considerations, will give a more intimate and suitable connection to all the parts of a sentence, paragraph, or chapter of any literary composition; because by it these parts are arranged according to their natural relations to each other, and the frequent use of punctuation to prevent confusion as in ordinary writing will be avoided. Hence, if a student follows the natural order of cause and effect in his attempts at combe reversed or changed into the following: Learn to compose in position, the old advice, Be careful to mark your stops, ought to the natural order of cause and effect, so that there will be no need for punctuation. The great value of the rule thus explained consists in this, that it will render our language at once simple, energetic, elegant, and harmonious. We now proceed to cite the examples given of some of the finest passages from the works of the writers who ushered in the eloquence of the nineteenth century-such as, Fox, Pitt, Grattan, Curran, and Mackintosh. EXAMPLES. 1. Mr. Fox, in his Historical Fragment, says : effect upon men in situations of unlimited authority; they will too "Fear of censure from contemporaries will seldom have much often flatter themselves, that the same power which enables them to commit the crime will secure them from reproach. The dread of posthumous infamy, therefore, being the only restraint, their consciences excepted, upon the passions of such persons, it is lamentable that this last defence (feeble enough at best) should in any degree be impaired; and impaired it must be, if not totally destroyed, when tyrants can hope to find in a man like Hume, no less eminent for the integrity and benevolence of his heart, than for the depth and soundness of his understanding, an apologist for even their foulest murders." In this beautiful passage, there are two slight violations of the rule. At the commencement of the second sentence, the dread of posthumous infamy is unqualifiedly said to be the only restraint, and then an exception to this instantly follows, and a still more powerful restraint - their consciences, is acknowledged. Now had the exception been first made, and then the only remaining restraint assigned, the order would have been natural; there would have been nothing contradictory in the passage; more connection would have been given to it, for a comma would have been omitted; and it would have been rendered simpler and stronger. Toward the end of the same sentence, there exists a similar inversion of natu ral order, which renders it extremely awkward and heavy. Both are corrected as the passage now follows: "Fear of censure from contemporaries will seldom have much effect upon men in situations of unlimited authority; they will too often flatter themselves, that the same power which enables them to commit the crime will secure them from reproach. Their consciences excepted, the dread of posthumous infamy therefore being the only restraint upon the passions of such persons, it is lamentable that this last defence (feeble enough at best) should in any degree be impaired, and impaired it must be, if not totally destroyed, when, in a man like Hume, no less eminent for the integrity and benevolence of his heart than for the depth and soundness of his understanding, tyrants can hope to find an apologist for even their foulest murders." 2. In the same work Mr. Fox says:— "This influence is but too naturally connected with the extensive limits of our empire, and with the broad and great scale upon which its operations are conducted. It is of the most pernicious kind; and at all times has been pointed to as the fertile source of all our miseries. It has been substituted in the room of wisdom, of activity, of exertion and of success. And it has been truly said of it, "that it has grown with our growth, and strengthened with our strength." Unhappily, however, for this country, it has not decayed with our decay, nor diminished with our decrease. It bears no sympathy nor connection with our falling state; but, notwithstanding the mad impolicy of a ministry which has contracted the limits of the empire, this corrupt influence is still found to exist in all its strength, and has supported that ministry for a length of years against all the consequences of a mischievous system and a desolated empire. It is the duty of Parliament to provide for the future, and to take care that in no time this secret and dark system shall be revived to contaminate the fair and honourable fabric of our government." 4. In his motion for a Reform in Parliament, on the 7th of May, 1783, Mr. Pitt observes :— "Thus, while without the shadow of a crime, Mr. Locke lost a situation attended with some emolument, and great convenience, was the university deprived of, or rather thus, from the base principles of servility, did she cast away, the man the having produced whom is now her chiefest glory; and thus to those who are not "It is unnecessary for me to say, that the county members in determined to be blind, did the true nature of absolute power dis- general are almost necessarily taken from that class and descripcover itself, against which the middling station is not more secure influence, the most deeply interested in the liberty and prosperity tion of gentlemen the least liable to the seduction of corrupt than the most exalted. Tyranny, when glutted with the blood of the great, and the plunder of the rich, will condescend to hunt of the country, and consequently the most likely to pursue such humbler game, and make a peaceable and innocent fellow of a col-measures as appear to them the most salutary." lege the object of its persecution. In this instance, one would almost imagine there was some instinctive sagacity in the government of that time, which pointed out to them, even before he had made himself known to the world, the man who was destined to be the most successful adversary of superstition and tyranny." In the second sentence of this passage, there is an error precisely similar to that which exists in the second sentence of the last. In the third there is another. Both are corrected in the following passage, as well as a slight error toward the end of the first : "Thus, while, without the shadow of a crime, Mr. Locke lost a situation attended with some emolument, and great convenience, was the university deprived of, or rather thus, from the base principles of servility, did she cast away the man, the having produced whom is now her chiefest glory; and thus, to those who are not determined to be blind, was discovered the true nature of absolute power, against which the middling station is not more secure than the most exalted. When glutted with the blood of the great, and the plunder of the rich, tyranny will condescend to hunt humbler gaine, and make a peaceable and innocent fellow of a college the object of its persecution. In this instance, one would almost imagine there was some instinctive sagacity in the government of that time, which, even before he had made himself known to the world, pointed out the man who was destined to be the most successful adversary of superstition and tyranny." 3. In Mr. Pitt's motion for a Reform in Parliament, on the 7th of May, 1782, is the following passage : Now it will at once be evident that, according to this rule, the second portion of this paragraph ought to be placed first; for it is because they are most deeply interested in the prosperity of the country, that they are least liable to the seduction of corrupt influence. The sentence ought therefore to have been thus arranged : "It is unnecessary for me to say, that the county members in general are almost necessarily taken from that class and description of gentlemen, the most deeply interested in the liberty and prosperity of the country, the least liable to the seduction of corrupt influence, and consequently the most likely to pursue such measures as appeared to them the most salutary to their country." 5. On an occasion of a very different nature from those on which the last-mentioned speeches were delivered-on the impeachment of Lord Melville, Mr. Pitt says:— "What do we propose to put in the place of a criminal information? An impeachment;-that very mode of proceeding for which the honourable gentlemen on the opposite side argued so strenuously at first;-that mode which they have contended to be best calculated to answer the ends of public justice; that mode which they have said to be most consistent with parliamentary usage, most agreeable to the dignity of the house, and most consonant to the principles of the constitution: on these fundamental broad grounds, they have been loud in their preference of an impeachment." Here a similar derangement exists. The parliamentary forms or means ought to be expressed before the ends of public justice, thus :— "What do we propose to put in the place of a criminal infor mation? An impeachment ;-that very mode of proceeding for which the honourable gentlemen on the opposite side argued so strenuously at first;-that mode which they have said to be most consonant to the principles of the constitution, most consistent with parliamentary usage, and most agreeable to the dignity of the house ;-that mode which they have contended to be the best calculated to answer the ends of public justice: on these fundamental broad grounds, they have been loud in their preference of an impeachment." "But it is the duty of Parliament to provide for the future, and to take care that in no time this secret and dark system shall be revived, to contaminate the fair and honourable fabric of our government. This influence is of the most pernicious kind; and at all times has been pointed to as the fertile source of all our miseries. It has been substituted in the room of wisdom, of activity, of exertion and of success. It is but too naturally connected with the extensive limits of our empire, and with the broad and great scale upon which its operations are conducted. It has been truly said of this corrupt influence, " that it has grown with our growth, and strengthened with our strength." Unhappily, however, for this country, it has not decayed with our decay, nor diminished with our decrease. It bears no sympathy nor connection with our falling state; but, notwithstanding the mad impolicy of a ministry which has contracted the limits of the "He still admits it as the most constitutional, the best calempire, this corrupt influence is still found to exist in all its culated to promote the great ends of public justice, the most constrength, and has supported that ministry for a length of years, sistent with the dignity of this, and the privileges of the other against all the consequences of a mischievous system, and a deso-house, as well as the best mode for the accused, who will then be lated empire." tried by his peers." Now, although, in innumerable points of view, the character of this great statesman is to be revered; and although he was considered to be the only man who ever perfectly spoke the English language, yet, in this passage, premises and conclusions, causes and effects are utterly confounded. It should be arranged thus:— 6. In the following passage of the same speech, a similar error exists : The sentence ought to be arranged thus: "He still admits it as the most constitutional, the most con. sistent with the dignity of this, and the privileges of the other house, and the best calculated to promote the great ends of public justice, as well as the best mode for the accused, who will then be tried by his peers." 7. In his speech on Catholic Emancipation, Mr. Grattan of suffering and of shame, where, unmoved by the hostile array of artillery and armed men collected together, to secure, or to insult, says:or to disturb him, he dies with a solemn declaration of his innocence, and utters his last breath in a prayer for the liberty of his "Will the constitution be endangered by procuring for it the cordial and steady support of four millions of people? Will the church be endangered by the exercise of charity, moderation, and all those virtues which command the respect, and conciliate the affections of mankind? Is the tree in danger of falling because it has a root, or is the capital less secure because it rests on a basis ?" Here the arrangement of these three sentences ought to have been completely reversed. After the question put in the first sentence, those in the last appear quite insignificant. They do not even serve the purpose of illustration. Whereas, if first introduced, they serve to call the mind strongly to the object; thus:-- "Is the tree in danger of falling because it has a root, or is the capital less secure because it rests upon a base? Will the church be endangered by the exercise of charity, moderation, and all those virtues which command the respect, and conciliate the affections of mankind? Will the constitution be endangered by procuring for it the cordial and steady support of four millions of people?" 8. In the same speech Mr. Grattan says:-- "I have thus shown, sir, that there is no moral nor political incompatibility between the two religions, that there is nothing in the privileges for which the Catholics petition inconsistent either with the original principle, the present character, or the perma nent duration of the British constitution; that, with regard to the actual state of Ireland, no danger is to be apprehended from compliance with their wishes either to the civil or ecclesiastical establishment of that country; and I shall have little difficulty in showing that, in the present state of Europe, it is of the highest importance to the safety of the empire." Now this is almost the reverse of natural order. The first proposition is more general, referring to the British constitution; the second more particular, referring to the state of Ireland; and the last again more general, referring to the safety of the empire. They ought to be arranged thus: "I have thus shown, sir, that there is no moral nor political incompatibility between the two religions; that with regard to the actual state of Ireland, no danger is to be apprehended from compliance with their wishes either to the civil or ecclesiastical establishment of that country; that there is nothing in the privileges for which the Catholics petition inconsistent either with the original principle, the present character, or the permanent duration of the British constitution; and I shall have little difficulty in showing that, in the present state of Europe, it is of the highest importance to the safety of the empire." 9. In a passage of extraordinary eloquence, Mr. Curran thus defends Mr. Hamilton Rowan for having professed uni. versal emancipation: country." There are here some trivial violations of the rule. The shame in this case precedes the suffering and should be expressed before it, and the disturbance precedes the insult. Both ought to be arranged thus : "No Seraph Mercy unbars his dungeon, and leads him forth to light and life, but the minister of death hurries him to the scene of shame and of suffering, where, unmoved by the hostile array of artillery and armed men collected together, to secure, or to disturb, or to insult him, he dies with a solemn declaration of his innocence, and utters his last breath in a prayer for the liberty of his country." Sir James Mackintosh thus speaks of Mr. Burke :11. In the eloquent introduction to his Vindicia Gallicæ, "It was not likely that, at his age, he should abandon, to the invasion of audacious novelties, opinions which he had received so early, and maintained so long; which had been fortified by the applause of the great, and the assent of the wise; which he had dictated to so many illustrious pupils, and supported against so many distinguished opponents." cause, ought to have preceded the applause of the great, as Here, according to the rule, the assent of the wise, as the the effect; and, on the same principle, his supporting his opinions against distinguished opponents, ought to have preceded his dictating them to illustrious pupils, thus: "It was not likely that, at his age, he should abandon, to the invasion of audacious novelties, opinions which he had received so early, and maintained so long; which had been fortified by the assent of the wise, and the applause of the great; which he had supported against so many distinguished opponents, and dictated to so many illustrious pupils." 12. In another place he says: "The glimpses of benevolence, which irradiate this gloom of invective, arise only from generous illusion, from misguided and misplaced compassion ;-his eloquence is not at leisure to deplore the fate of beggared artisans, and famished peasants, the victims of suspended industry and languishing commerce." Here misplaced compassion, as the cause, ought to have preceded generous illusion, as the effect, and the fate of famished peasants ought to have been mentioned before that of beggared artisans, consistently with his own subsequent expression," suspended industry and languishing commerce;" thus: "The glimpses of benevolence, which irradiate this gloom of invective, arise only from misguided and misplaced compassion, the fate of famished peasants, and beggared artisans, the victims from generous illusion ;-his eloquence is not at leisure to deplore suspended industry and languishing commerce." "No matter in what language his doom may have been pronounced;-no matter what complexion, incompatible with free-of dom, an Indian or an African sun may have burnt upon him; no matter in what disastrous battle his liberty may have been cloven down; no matter with what solemnities he may have been devoted upon the Altar of Slavery; the first moment he touches the sacred soil of Britain, the Altar and the God sink together in the dust; his soul walks abroad in her own majesty; his body swells beyond the measure of his chains, that burst from around him; and he stands redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled, by the irresistible genius of universal emancipation." The following arrangement is more natural : "No matter what complexion incompatible with freedom, an Indian or an African sun may have burnt upon him;-no matter in what disastrous battle his liberty may have been cloven down; no matter with what solemnities he may have been devoted upon the Altar of Slavery ;-no matter in what language his doom may have been pronounced; the first moment he touches the sacred soil of Britain, the Altar and the God sink together in the dust; his body swells beyond the measure of his chains, that burst from around him; his soul walks abroad in her own majesty; and he stands redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled, by the irresistible genius of universal emancipation." 10. In his speech for Mr. Orr, Mr. Curran says:"No Seraph Mercy unbars his dungeon, and leads him forth to light and life; but the minister of death hurries him to the scene 13. In another place he says:— the visionary policy that seemed to him to tarnish the lustre of the "He might deplore the sanguinary excesses-he might deride Revolution, but it was hard to have supposed that he should have exhausted against it, every epithet of contumely and opprobrium that language can furnish to indignation; that the rage of his declamation should not for one moment have been suspended; that his heart should not betray one faint glow of triumph, at the splendid and glorious delivery of so great a people." This ought to have been arranged as follows:sanguinary excesses that seemed to him to tarnish the lustre of "He might deride the visionary policy-he might deplore the the Revolution, but it was hard to have supposed that his heart should not betray one faint glow of triumph, at the splendid and glorious delivery of so great a people; that the rage of his declamation should not for one moment have been suspended; and that he should even have exhausted against it, every epithet of contumely and opprobrium that language can furnish to indignation." The passages which have now been given will sufficiently illustrate the principle enunciated. It may be remarked, that Grattan and Curran, though far inferior in debate, appear to be incomparably more eloquent more truly Demosthenean composers, than either Fox or Pitt. They frequently, however, in common with Burke, display great want of taste, and, in this respect, rank after Mackintosh, who if he does not reach them in the very highest efforts of oratory, is always more classical, more exquisitely polished, more perfect. Some of the finest passages of our best authors might have been selected, and it might have been shown that they have all violated this rule, and that they may be greatly improved by the adoption of it. Some passages from the best Latin, Greek, Italian, Spanish, French, and German authors might also have been chosen, and it were easy to show that the rule is equally applicable to every language. 14. Meanwhile, we proceed to explain some apparent, but not real, exceptions to the principle. These occur more frequently in the works of Sterne than any other English author; and they are those which in reality chiefly give the peculiar character to his works. "The poor Franciscan made no reply: a hectic of a moment passed across his cheek, but could not tarry-Nature seemed to have done with her resentments in him; he showed nonebut letting his staff fall within his arm, he pressed both his hands with resignation upon his breast, and retired." Now here Nature's having done with her resentments in him, is the cause of that which is previously mentioned, viz. his making no reply, etc. This then would, at first sight, seem to be a deviation from the rule, and as the passage is exquisitely beautiful, one would be inclined to say that the rule is inapplicable. But all this is by no means the case. These words, as expressing causes and effects, are to be considered not with relation to the mind of the poor Franciscan, but with relation to the mind of Yorick. That which is an effect in the former is a cause in the latter; it is in consequence of the Franciscan's making no reply, that Yorick concludes that Nature has done with her resentments in him; the want of reply then is the cause; Yorick's conclusion is the effect; and the passage is perfectly consistent with the rule. 15. This is equally illustrated by the following fine passage of the same author: "Come, honesty !-said I-seeing it was impracticable to pass between him and the gate-art thou for coming in or going out? The ass twisted his head round to look up the street. Well-replied 1-we'll wait a minute for thy driver. He turned his head thoughtful about, and looked wistfully the opposite way. I understand thee perfectly, answered I-if thou takest a wrong step in this affair, he will cudgel thee to death-well!| a minute is but a minute, and if it saves a fellow-creature a drubbing, it shall not be set down as ill spent. He was eating the stem of an artichoke as this discourse went on, and, in the little peevish contentions of nature betwixt hunger and unsavouriness, had dropt it out of his mouth half a dozen times and picked it up again. God help thee, Jack! said I, thou hast a bitter breakfast on't-and many a bitter day's labour-and many a bitter blow, I fear, for its wages-'tis all bitterness to thee, whatever life is to others." "Thou stick'st a dagger in me; I shall never see my gold again: four score ducats at a sitting! four score ducats!"" Now, in this admirable passage, it would at first sight appear that the order of cause and effect was entirely reversed; for it seems as if he should first mention his loss, in the last words of the passage; then the impossibility of his ever seeing the ducats again; and lastly the pain which this occasioned, alluded to in the first exclamation. This would appear to be the natural order. But a moment's consideration will show, that however correct this may be in physical description, it would be utterly inapplicable in the impassioned acts of the mind. In short, this is no deseription of the event to which his exclamation has a reference, but a description of Shylock's feelings and the reflections which result from them, and that which was a cause in the former case cannot be a cause in the latter, as will clearly appear. Thus the loss of fourscore ducats at a sitting, cannot, strictly speaking, be a cause why he should never see his gold again, and still less why Tubal should stick a dagger in him. The real order of cause and effect is the very reverse of this: Tubal excited in him a painful sensation; this, as a cause, leads him to reflect that he shall never see his gold again; and this again, as a cause, leads him to the physical origin of his misfortunes, which here only comes in as an effect of a certain train of ideas or acts of the mind. 17. The very same observations apply to the following passage in the same dialogue :— "Out upon her! thou torturest me, Tubal! it was my ruby; I had it of Leah when I was a bachelor." Thus these passages are strictly conformable to the rule which has been given, which, far from fettering genius, bends with every inflexion of thought, and produces the most magical yet strictly natural effects. In conclusion, wherever there are errors in composition, they arise from ignorance or neglect of this principle; and wherever there are striking beauties, they arise, however unintentionally, from its adoption. LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. XL. By JOHN R. Beard, D.D. 3. Verbs whose pure stem is in the Present and Imperfect strengthened by the insertion of av, less often aiv, before the terminations. (a) av or av is introduced without any other change. All verbs of this kind form their tenses from a triple stem; namely, the Present and Imperfect from the strengthened stem, the Second Aorist from the pure stem, the Future and Perfect from a third stem which arises from the pure stem and an added &, which in the inflexion passes into. The a in the termination avo is short. 1. αισθανομαι, I feel, a. ησθ-ομην, αισθεσθαι; pf. ᾔσθημαι, 1. αισθησομαι. 2. 3. 4. 5. Here, in the third paragraph, may be discovered the cause of the action mentioned in the second; in the fifth, that of the action in the fourth; and in the end of the sixth, that of the action mentioned at its commencement. Here, therefore, it might be concluded that cause and effect were reversed and the rule violated. But it is the mind of Yorick, not that of the ass, which we are to consider, and it will appear that whatever have hitherto seemed to be effects, now appear to be causes; that the actions of the ass are the causes from which | 6. the effects, viz. Yorick's conclusions, arise. The passage, therefore, accords to the rule as well as many other similarly 7. constructed ones of Sterne, whose writings in some measure derive their peculiarity from this very circumstance. Yet they contain innumerable violations of the principle. àμapravw, I miss the mark, fail, sin, a. 2. papтov, f. ἁμαρτησομαι, pf. ἡμαρτηκα, pf. p. ἡμαρτημαι, a. p. ἡμαρτηθην. añεx@avoμai, I am hateful, a. añηx@oμnv, inf. añɛɣÕεσÐαι, 1. απεχθησομαι, pf. απηχθημαι (I am hated). avžavw (and avžw), I increase, f. avžnow, a. 1. nužnoa (pf. ηυξηκα), pf. p. ηυξημαι, f. p. αυξησομαι, a. p. ηυξήθην. Baoravw, I sprout, a. 2. &ßλaorov, f. Blaornow, pf. εβλαστηκα and βεβλαστηκα. daplavw, commonly as a compound, karadaplavo, I sleep, a. 2. κατεδαρθον, f. καταδαρθησομαι, pf. καταδεδαρθηκα. oo@avw, I slip, I slide, a. 2. wλiolov, f. odio0now, pf. ωλισθηκα. 8. οσφραινομαι, I smell, a. 2. ωαφρομην, f. οσφρησομαι. 16. But there appear, at first sight, to be still more striking 9. ophiokavw, I am liable, I owe, a. 2. wpλov, f. opλnow, pf. exceptions to this rule. Thus, in the fine dialogue between Shylock and Tubal, the former exclaims : wpλŋka, pf. mid. or pass, woλnual. Mark the double strengthening in cor and av. 312 characteristic consonant of the pure stem. Thus in λανθανω, pure stem λαθ-, between a and θ ν is introduced, forming λανθ-, to which av is added, forming λανθαν-, The short vowel in the pure stem passes in the tenses (except the Second Aorist) into the corresponding long one; μανθάνω is an exception. The v before a p sound and s k sound undergoes the usual changes. (3) ἄν is added together with the insertion of the nasal v before the τοις Έλλησιν απήχθοντο. Φιλιππος αυτος απεφαίνετο δια χρυσιου μαλλον, η δια των όπλων ηυξηκεναι την ιδιαν βασιλειαν. Ως ώσφροντο Οἱ στρατιωται βραχυν χρονον κατεδαρθον. ταχιστα των καμήλων οἱ ἱπποι, οπισω ανεστρεφον. Μη θιγος του κυνος, αγε δεύρο, ἵνα πυθη της λυγρας αγγελιας. Θεον | επιορκῶν μη δοκει λεληθέναι. Αρχης τετυχηκως ισθι ταυτης Καλον μηδεν εις φιλους ἁμαρτειν. Μακάριος όστις αξιος. ετυχε γενναιου φιλου. Μαθε φερειν την συμφοραν. Ουδεις πω ξενον εξαπατησας αθανατους ελαθεν. Απ' εσθλων εσθλα μαθηση. Και κακος πολλακις τιμης και δοξης ελαχεν. Παρα των θεων πολλα παρειληφαμεν δωρα. Ου λεληθεν όστις αδικα εργα Ει Θεον ανηρ τις ελπεται λαθειν, ἁμαρτάνει. Δις | πραττει. εξαμαρτεῖν ταυτον ουκ ανδρος σοφου. Εξ αγαθης χθονος εβλαστε καλα ανθεμα, εκ δ' ορθων φρενων βουλευματ' εσθλα. 13. λανθάνω, I le concealed, a. 2. έλαθον, f. λησω, pf. λεληθα | ευεργεσίας ούποτε επιλήσομαι. (I am concealed); mid. επιλανθανομαι, I forget, a. επελαθομην, f. επιλησομαι, pf. επιλελησμαι. 10. θιγγανω (pure stem θιγ), I touch, a. 2. εθιγον, f. θιξομαι. 12. λαμβανω, I take, a. 2. ελάβον, imper. λαβε, f. ληψομαι, pf. 14. πυνθανομαι, I ask, inquire, learn, a. επυθόμην, pf. πεπυσμαι, πεπυσαι, etc.. f. πευσομαι. 15. μανθάνω, I learn, a. εκάθον, f. μαθησομαι, pf. μεμαθηκα the a, contrary to the rule, remains short. 16. τυγχανω, I hit the mark, I get, obtain (with gen.), it happens, a. 2. ετυχον, f. τευξομαι, pf. τετυχηκα (ΤΥΧΕ). VOCABULARY. camel. Εξαμαρτάνω, I fail, sin (the εξ | Καμηλος, ου, ὁ and ἡ, a asleep. Αναστρέφω, I turn round I swear falsely (with acc.) | | Χρυσιον (dimin. of χρυσος), Ανθεμον, το, bloom, flower. determination. Χθων, ονος, ή, the earth. Ιδιος, α, ον, one's own. Βραχυς, εια, υ, short. Πω, enclitic, in some way. REMARKS. : ENGLISH-GREEK. Της The king is aware of the plot against him. The general will not be aware of the plot against him. Who (τις) has not erred (sinned) They err. They erred. They will err. I erred. Wise men do hot err (it is not of wise men to err) twice in the same thing. The wicked man is hateful to the good. Philip increased his dominion by gold more than by arms. Being wicked you will not lie hidden at last. They are willing to make (take) unjust gain. My brothers in learning (simply the participle) have a learning mind. The good will obtain good things. The men fell asleep. I slept a short time. Touching the dog (that is, if thou touchest), thou art bitten. I have obtained noble friends. They will obtain noble friends. Bear misfortune. I learn to bear misfortune. I have received I have learned good things from good men. many gifts from God. He lay hid doing a wicked deed (that is, he did a wicked deed and was not found out). You will not at last lie hid doing (if you do) wicked deeds. They hope to lie hid being wicked (that is, they are wicked and hope not to be discovered). Beautiful flowers are blowing. The good soil (χθων) bears fine trees. They forget the benefit. I will never forget the benefits of God. 4. Verba whose pure stem is, in the Present and Imperfect, strengthened by the addition of the two consonants ok, or the syllable ισκ. Σκ are appended when the characteristic of the stem is s vowel, and ισκ when it is a consonant. Most of the verbs whose pure stem ends in a vowel, form the Future, etc., after the analogy of pure verbs, as εὑρισκω, f. εὑρησω (ΕΥΡΕ). Some of these verbs, however, take in the Present and Imperfect a reduplication, which consists in the repetition of the Δια τελους, through the end, that is, at last, or finally, in the first consonant of the stem with the vowel .. long run. Συμμαχου-, thou wilt obtain God as an ally. Επαρκῶν, by helping ; you must often add a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition, in order to give the force of participles. Ὡς, take ταχιστα together with ὡς, as ὡς ταχιστα. Εξαπατησας, the participle in connexion with ελαθεν; the πω softens the statement, scarcely any one. Ει Θεον, etc. Θεον is governed in the accusative by λαθειν, though we say, lie hid to. 1. άλισκ-ομαι (α), I am taken, captured (used of a city), impf. ἡλισκομην; (ΑΛΟ) f. άλωσομαι, aor. 2. ήλων and ἑᾶλων (μι) (I was taken), pf. ήλωκα and ἑάλωκα (I have been taken); the active is formed by aipɛīv, to take, overcome. ανάλισκω, I spend, waste, impf. ανηλίσκον (ΑΝΑΛΟ), f. ανάλωσω, 8. ανήλωσα and ανάλωσα, κατηνάλωσα, pf. ανηλωκα and ανάλωκα, pf. m. or p. ανηλωμαι and ανάλωμαι, a. ανηλωθην and αναλωθην. 2. What part of the verb is λησειν? τευξη: απήχθονται 3. ηυξηκεναι? ωσφροντο? θιγης? ετυχε? ελαθε? έλαχε ? παρειληθαμεν ? λεληθες λαθειν ? επιλησομαι ? Explain how each is formed, and what rule or remark the formation of each ex- 4. emplifies. EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. Λησειν δια τελους μη δοκείτω ὁ πονηρος. Κερδος πονηρον. μη λαθειν βουλου ποτε. Δικαια δρασας συμμαχου τευξη Θεόν. Γραμματα μαθειν δει και μαθοντα νοῦν ἔχειν. Λαβε προνοιαν του προςήκοντος βιου. Ξένοις επαρκών των ίσων τευξη ποτε. Ο βασιλευς της προς ἑαυτον επιβουλης ουκ ησθετο. Οἱ Περσαι f. αρεσκω, I please, f, αρεσω, a. ηρεσα, pf. m. or p. ηρεσμαι, a. Po ηρεσθην. γηρασκω (or γηραω), I grow old, f. γηρασομαι, a. 1. εγηρᾶσα, inf. γηρᾶσαι, pf. γεγηρακα (I am old) 5. γιγνωσκω, I learn, I know (ΓΝΟ), f. γνωσομαι, a. 2. εγνων (μι), pf. εγνωκα, pf. m. or p. εγνωσμαι, a. p. εγνώθην. διδρασκω, I run away (only in compounds, as αποδ-, εκδ-, διαδ-), f. δρασομαι, pf. δεδράκα, a. 2. εδρᾶν (μι). |