Their manners. the Roman senators, which so far exceeded the proportion of modern wealth, were not confined to the limits of Italy. Their possessions extended far beyond the Ionian and Ægean seas, to the most distant provinces: the city of Nicopolis, which Augustus had founded as an eternal monument of the Actian victory, was the property of the devout Paula (28); and it is observed by Seneca, that the rivers, which had divided hostile nations, now flowed through the lands of private citizens (29). According to their temper and circumstances, the estates of the Romans were either cultivated by the labour of their slaves, or granted, for a certain and stipulated rent, to the industrious farmer. The œconomical writers of antiquity strenuously recommend the former method, wherever it may be practicable; but if the object should be removed, by its distance or magnitude, from the immediate eye of the master, they prefer the active care of an old hereditary tenant, attached to the soil, and interested in the produce, to the mercenary administration of a negligent, perhaps an unfaithful, steward (30). The opulent nobles of an immense capital, who were never excited by the pursuit of military glory, and seldom engaged in the occupations of civil government, naturally resigned their leisure to the business and amusements of private life. At Rome, commerce was always held in contempt: but the senators, from the first age of the republic, increased their patrimony, and multiplied their clients, by the lucrative practice of usury; and the obsolete laws were eluded, or violated, by the mutual inclinations and interest of both parties (31). A considerable mass of treasure must always have existed at Rome, either in the current coin of the empire, or in the form of gold and silver plate; and there were many side-boards in the time of Pliny, which contained more solid silver, than had been transported by Scipio from vanquished Carthage (32). The greater 2525 value of part of that purse. In the former sense, the 25,000 folles would be equal to 150,000l.; in the latter to five or six pounds sterling. The one appears extravagant, the other is ridiculous. There must have existed some third, and middle value, which is here understood; but ambiguity is an inexcusable fault in the language of laws. (28) Nicopolis. . . . . in Actiaco littore sita possessionis vestræ nunc pars vel maxima est. Jerom. in præfat. Comment. ad Epistol. ad Titum, tom. ix. p. 243. M. de Tillemont supposes, strangely enough, that it was part of Agamemnon's inheritance. Mém. Ecclés. tom. xii. p. 85. (29) Seneca, Epist. lxxxix. His language is of the declamatory kind: but declamation, could scarcely exaggerate the avarice and luxury of the Romans. The philosopher himself deserved some share of the reproach; if it be true that his rigorous exaction of Quadringenties, above three hundred thousand pounds, which he had lent at high interest, provoked a rebellion in Britain. (Dion Cassius, 1. lxii. p. 1003.). According to the conjecture of Gale (Antoninus's Itinerary in Britain, p. 92.), the same Faustinus possessed an estate near Bury, in Suffolk, and another in the kingdom of Naples. (30) Volusius, a wealthy senator (Tacit. Annal. iii. 30.), always preferred tenants born on the estate. Columella, who received this maxim from him, argues very judiciously on the subject. De Re Rustica, 1. i. c. 7. p. 408. edit. Gesner. Leipzig, 1735. (31) Valesius (ad Ammian. xiv. 6.) has proved, from Chrysostom, and Augustin, that the senators were not allowed to lend money at usury. Yet it appears from the Theodosian Code (see Godefroy ad l. ii. tit. xxxiii. tom. i. p. 230-289.), that they were permitted to take six per cent. or one-half of the legal interest; and, what is more singular, this permission was granted to the young se nators. (32) Plin. Hist. Natur. xxxiii. 50. He states the silver at only 4380 pounds, which is increased part of the nobles, who dissipated their fortunes in profuse luxury, found themselves poor in the midst of wealth; and idle in a constant round of dissipation. Their desires were continually gratified by the labour of a thousand hands; of the numerous train of their domestic slaves, who were actuated by the fear of punishment; and of the various professions of artificers and merchants, who were more powerfully impelled by the hopes of gain. The ancients were destitute of many of the conveniences of life, which have been invented or improved by the progress of industry; and the plenty of glass and linen has diffused more real comforts among the modern nations of Europe, than the senators of Rome could derive from all the refinements of pompous or sensual luxury (33). Their luxury, and their manners, have been the subject of minute and laborious disquisition: but as such inquiries would divert me too long from the design of the present work, I shall produce an authentic state of Rome and its inhabitants, which is more peculiarly applicable to the period of the Gothic invasion. Ammianus Marcellinus, who prudently chose the capital of the empire, as the residence the best adapted to the historian of his own times, has mixed with the narrative of public events, a lively representation of the scenes with which he was familiarly conversant. The judicious reader will not always approve of the asperity of censure, the choice of circumstances, or the style of expression: he will perhaps detect the latent prejudices, and personal resentments, which soured the temper of Ammianus himself; but he will surely observe, with philosophic curiosity, the interesting and original picture of the manners of Rome (34). the Roman An matus The greatness of Rome (such is the language of the historian) Character of ،، was founded on the rare, and almost incredible, alliance of virtue "and of fortune. The long period of her infancy was employed Marcettinus "in a laborious struggle against the tribes of Italy, the neighbours "and enemies of the rising city. In the strength and ardour of "youth, she sustained the storms of war; carried her victorious "arms beyond the seas and the mountains; and brought home “ triumphant laurels from every country of the globe. At length, by Livy (xxx. 45.) to 100,023: the former seems too little for an opulent city, the latter too much for any private sideboard. (33) The learned Arbuthnot (Tables of Ancient Coins, &c. p. 153.) has observed with humour, and I believe with truth, that Augustus had neither glass to his windows, nor a shirt to his back. Under the lower empire, the use of linen and glass became somewhat more common.* (34) It is incumbent on me to explain the liberties which I have taken with the text of Ammianus. 1. I have melted down into one piece the sixth chapter of the fourteenth, and the fourth of the twenty-eighth book. 2. I have given order and connection to the confused mass of materials. 3. I have softened some extravagant hyperboles, and pared away some superfluities of the original. 4. I have developed some observations which were insinuated, rather than expressed. With these allowances, my version will be found, not literal indeed, but faithful and exact. *The discovery of glass in such common use at Pompeii, spoils the jest of Arbuthnot. See Sir W. Gell. Pompeiana, 2d ser. p. 98.-M. 66 "verging towards old age, and sometimes conquering by the terror "only of her name, she sought the blessings of ease and tranquillity. "The VENERABLE CITY, which had trampled on the necks of the "fiercest nations; and established a system of laws, the perpetual guardians of justice and freedom; was content, like a wise and "wealthy parent, to devolve on the Cæsars, her favourite sons, "the care of governing her ample patrimony (35). A secure and "profound peace, such as had been once enjoyed in the reign of "Numa, succeeded to the tumults of a republic: while Rome was "still adored as the queen of the earth; and the subject nations "still reverenced the name of the people, and the majesty of the "senate. But this native splendour (continues Ammianus) is de"graded, and sullied, by the conduct of some nobles; who, un"mindful of their own dignity, and of that of their country, assume "an unbounded licence of vice and folly. They contend with each "other in the empty vanity of titles and surnames; and curiously "select, or invent, the most lofty and sonorous appellations, Re"burrus, or Fabunius, Pagonius, or Tarrasius (36), which may "impress the ears of the vulgar with astonishment and respect. "From a vain ambition of perpetuating their memory, they affect "to multiply their likeness, in statues of bronze and marble; nor "are they satisfied, unless those statues are covered with plates of gold: an honourable distinction, first granted to Acilius the con"sul, after he had subdued, by his arms and counsels, the power "of king Antiochus. The ostentation of displaying, of magnifying, perhaps, the rent-roll of the estates which they possess in all the provinces, from the rising to the setting sun, provokes the just "resentment of every man, who recollects, that their poor and "invincible ancestors were not distinguished from the meanest of "the soldiers, by the delicacy of their food, or the splendour of their apparel. But the modern nobles measure their rank and consequence according to the loftiness of their chariots (37), and the 66 66 66 66 66 (35) Claudian, who seems to have read the history of Ammianus, speaks of this great revolution in a much less courtly style: Postquam jura ferox in se communia Cæsar De Bel. Gildoniço, p. 49. (36) The minute diligence of antiquarians has not been able to verify these extraordinary names. I am of opinion that they were invented by the historian himself, who was afraid of any personal satire or application. It is certain, however, that the simple denominations of the Romans were gradually lengthened to the number of four, five, or even seven, pompous surnames; as for instance, Marcus Mæcius Mammius Furius Balburius Cæcilianus Placidus. See Noris Cenotaph. Pisan. Dissert. iv. p. 438. (37) The carruca, or coaches of the Romans, were often of solid silver, curiously carved and engraved; and the trappings of the mules, or horses, were embossed with gold. This magnificence continued from the reign of Nero to that of Honorius; and the Appian way was covered with the splendid equipages of the nobles, who came out to meet St. Melania, when she returned to Rome, six years before the Gothic siege (Seneca, epist. lxxxvii. Plin. Hist. Natur. xxxiii. 49. Paulin. Nolan. apud Baron. Annal. Eccles. A. D. 397. No. 5.). Yet pomp is well exchanged for convenience; and a plain modern coach, that is hung upon springs, is much preferable to the silver or gold carts 66 "weighty magnificence of their dress. Their long robes of silk "and purple float in the wind; and as they are agitated, by art or "accident, they occasionally discover the under garments, the "rich tunics, embroidered with the figures of various animals (38). "Followed by a train of fifty servants, and tearing up the pave"ment, they move along the streets with the same impetuous "speed as if they travelled with post-horses; and the example of "the senators is boldly imitated by the matrons and ladies, whose "covered carriages are continually driving round the immense space of the city and suburbs. Whenever these persons of high "distinction condescend to visit the public baths, they assume, on "their entrance, a tone of loud and insolent command, and ap"propriate to their own use the conveniences which were designed "for the Roman people. If, in these places of mixed and general "resort, they meet any of the infamous ministers of their pleasures, they express their affection by a tender embrace; while "they proudly decline the salutations of their fellow-citizens, who "are not permitted to aspire above the honour of kissing their "hands, or their knees. As soon as they have indulged them"selves in the refreshment of the bath, they resume their rings, "and the other ensigns of their dignity; select from their private "wardrobe of the finest linen, such as might suffice for a dozen persons, the garments the most agreeable to their fancy, and "maintain till their departure the same haughty demeanour; which "perhaps might have been excused in the great Marcellus, after "the conquest of Syracuse. Sometimes, indeed, these heroes un"dertake more arduous achievements; they visit their estates in "Italy, and procure themselves, by the toil of servile hands, the amusements of the chace (39). If at any time, but more espe 66 66 66 66 cially on a hot day, they have courage to sail, in their painted "galleys, from the Lucrine lake (40) to their elegant villas on the "sea-coast of Puteoli and Cayeta (41), they compare their own of antiquity, which rolled on the axle-tree, and were exposed, for the most part, to the inclemency of the weather. (38) In a homily of Asterius, bishop of Amasia, M. de Valois has discovered (ad Ammian. xiv. 6.) that this was a new fashion; that bears, wolves, lions, and tigers, woods, hunting-matches, &c. were represented in embroidery; and that the more pious coxcombs substituted the figure or legend of some favourite saint. (39) See Pliny's Epistles, i. 6. Three large wild boars were allured and taken in the toils without interrupting the studies of the philosophic sportsman. (40) The change from the inauspicious word Avernus, which stands in the text, is immaterial. The two lakes, Avernus and Lucrinus, communicated with each other, and were fashioned by the stupendous moles of Agrippa into the Julian port, which opened, through a narrow entrance, into the gulf of Puteoli. Virgil, who resided on the spot, has described (Georgic ii. 161.) this work at the moment of its execution; and his commentators, especially Catrou, have derived much light from Strabo, Suetonius, and Dion. Earthquakes and volcanos have changed the face of the country, and turned the Lucrine lake, since the year 1538, into the Monte Nuovo. See Camillo Pellegrino Discorsi della Campania Felice, p. 239. 244, &c. Antonii Sanfelicii Campania, p. 13. 88.* (41) The regna Cumana et Puteolana; loca cæteroqui valde expetenda, interpellantium autem multitudine pæne fugienda. Cicero ad Attic. xvi. 17 * Compare Lyell's Geology, ii. 72.-Y. 66 "expeditions to the marches of Cæsar and Alexander. Yet should a fly presume to settle on the silken folds of their gilded um"brellas; should a sun-beam penetrate through some unguarded "and imperceptible chink, they deplore their intolerable hardships, "and lament, in affected language, that they were not born in the "land of the Cimmerians (42), the regions of eternal darkness. "In these journeys into the country (43), the whole body of the "household marches with their master. In the same manner as "the cavalry and infantry, the heavy and the light armed troops, "the advanced guard and the rear, are marshalled by the skill "of their military leaders; so the domestic officers, who bear a "rod, as an ensign of authority, distribute and arrange the nu"merous train of slaves and attendants. The baggage and ward"robe move in, the front; and are immediately followed by a "multitude of cooks, and inferior ministers, employed in the ser"vice of the kitchens, and of the table. The main body is com"posed of a promiscuous crowd of slaves, increased by the acci"dental concourse of idle or dependent plebeians. The rear is "closed by the favourite band of eunuchs, distributed from age "to youth, according to the order of seniority. Their numbers, "and their deformity, excite the horror of the indignant spectators, who are ready to execrate the memory of Semiramis, for "the cruel art which she invented, of frustrating the purposes "of nature, and of blasting in the bud the hopes of future gene"rations. In the exercise of domestic jurisdiction, the nobles of "Rome express an exquisite sensibility for any personal injury, "and a contemptuous indifference for the rest of the human spe"cies. When they have called for warm water, if a slave has “been tardy in his obedience, he is instantly chastised with three "hundred lashes: but should the same slave commit a wilful "murder, the master will mildly observe, that he is a worthless "fellow; but that, if he repeats the offence, he shall not escape "punishment. Hospitality was formerly the virtue of the Romans; "and every stranger, who could plead either merit or misfortune, was relieved, or rewarded, by their generosity. At present, if "a foreigner, perhaps of no contemptible rank, is introduced to "one of the proud and wealthy senators, he is welcomed indeed "in the first audience, with such warm professions, and such kind 66 66 (42) The proverbial expression of Cimmerian darkness was originally borrowed from the description of Homer (in the eleventh book of the Odyssey) which he applies to a remote and fabulous country on the shores of the ocean. See Erasmi Adagia, in his works, tom. ii. p. 593. the Leyden edition. (43) We may learn from Seneca, epist. cxxiii. three curious circumstances relative to the journeys of the Romans. 1. They were preceded by a troop of Numidian light-horse, who announced, by a cloud of dust, the approach of a great man. 2. Their baggage-mules transported not only the precious vases, but even the fragile vessels of crystal and murra, which last is almost proved, by the learned French translator of Seneca (tom. iii. p. 402-422.), to mean the porcelain of China and Japan. 3. The beautiful faces of the young slaves were covered with a medicated crust, or ointment, which secured them against the effects of the sun and frost. |