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tin-foil. This is made from the finest tin, first cast into an ingot, then laminated to a certain extent, and afterwards beat out with a hammer. Tin is used for tinning copper, iron, &c. and the salts of tin are employed in dying.

TIN plate, tinning. Tin combines with iron, and adheres strongly to its surface, forming a thin covering. This is one of the most useful combinations of tin, for it renders the iron fit for a great many valuable purposes, for which, otherwise, on account of its strong tendency to oxidation, or rusting, it would be totally inapplicable. This is well known by the name of tin-plate, or white iron. The process of tinning iron is the following: the plates of iron being reduced to the proper thickness, are cleaned by means of a weak acid. For this purpose the surface is first cleaned with sand, to remove any rust that may have formed. They are then immersed in water, acidulated with a small quantity of sulphuric acid, in which they are kept for twenty-four hours, and Occasionally agitated. They are then well rubbed with cloths, that the surface may be perfectly clean. The tin is fused in a pot, the surface of which is covered with an oily or resinous matter, to prevent its oxidation.

The plates of iron are then immersed in the melted tin, and are either moved about in the liquid metal, or are dipped several different times They are then taken out, and rubbed with saw-dust or bran, to remove the impurities from the surface.

TINCTURE, is commonly understood to be a coloured infusion of any substance in alcohol. It is a preparation much employed in PHARMACY, with many articles of the MATERIA medica (which see), particularly vegetable barks, aromatics of all kinds, and many of the resins and gum resins, which yield to alcohol, by infusion, that part of their substance in which most of the medicinal virtue resides.

TINCTURE, in heraldry, the hue or colour of any thing in coat armour, under which denomination may also be included the two metals, or and argent, because they are often represented by yellow and white.

TIPHIA, in natural history, a genus of insects of the order Hymenoptera. Mouth with a membranaceous rounded jaw, the mandible arched and acute; no tongue; four feelers, filiform, unequal, and inserted in the middle of the lip; antennæ filiform; short, convolute; sting concealed within the abdomen. There

are about twenty-seven species, in two divisions: A. jaw vaulted; lip membranaceous, emarginate. B. jaw rounded; lip horny, three-toothed.

TIPULA, in natural history, crane-fly, a genus of insects of the order Diptera. Mouth with a very short membranceous proboscis, the back grooved and receiv ing a bristle; two feelers, incurved, filiform, and longer than the head; the antennæ are mostly filiform. There are nearly one hundred and fifty species, in two sections, distinguished by their wings. The insects in the division A have their wings expanded; those in B have them incumbent.

Most of the insects of this genus are very like the gnat; they feed on various substances: the larvæ are without feet, soft, and cylindrical, with a truncate toothed head, and feed on the roots of plants: the pupa is cylindrical, two-horned before, and toothed behind. The largest of the European tipulæ is T. rivosa; it is found frequently an inch and half in body, and is distinguished by the colour of its wings, which are transparent, with large dusky undulations, intermixed with white towards the rib, or upper edge. This insect proceeds from a greyish larva, found beneath the roots of grass in meadows, gardens, &c. and in the months of July and August it changes into a lengthened chrysalis, out of which, in September, proceeds the complete animal. This is known by the title of longlegs, and is frequently seen in houses during autumaal evenings, when, if it be possible, it will destroy itself by flying into the flame of a lighted candle. This propensity is common to many insects. T. tritici of Europe is a very minute insect. The antennæ are moniliform, longer than the thorax; legs very long. The larva is found in the ears of wheat, to which it is very injurious.

The Hessian fly belongs to this Linnæan genus: it has been described by T. Say, in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, under the name of Cecidomyia destructor.

TITANIUM, is a metal of a copper red colour, very difficult of fusion, soluble in muriatic acid, from which it may be precipitated by a tincture of galls. This metal was discovered in 1793, by Klaproth. He obtained it from a mineral called red schorl. In this mineral he found the oxide of a metal different from any other then known. To this, from Meriachan in Cornwall, where it was found, he gave the name of menachanite,

but he had not succeeded in reducing it to the metallic state. Klaproth afterwards analysed the menachanite, and found that it was precisely the same as the oxide of the metal which he discovered in red schorl. To this metal he gave the name of titanium. This metal has been found only in the state of oxide. Red schorl consists entirely of this oxide. It has been found in different countries, as in Spain, France, and Hungary. It is disseminated in the fine specimens of rock-crystal which are brought from Madagascar, crystallized in long brilliant needles; the form of the primitive crystal being a six-sided prism, with two-sided summits: that of the molecule is a triangular prism, with right angled isosceles bases. It is of a red colour of different shades. It is brittle, but the fragments are so hard as to scratch glass. The specific gravity is from 4.1 to 4.2.

The other mineral to which Klaproth has given the name of titanite, is composed of oxide of titanium, silica, and lime, nearly in equal proportions. Its specific gravity is 3.5. Titanium was obtained by Vauquelin, by reducing the native red oxide. He mixed together 100 parts of this oxide with 50 of calcined borax, and 50 of charcoal, formed into a paste with oil; and exposed the whole to the heat of a forge raised to 166° Wedgwood. By this process he obtained a dark coloured agglutinated mass, having a brilliant appearance on the surface. Titanium obtained in this way is of a reddish yellow colour, shining and brilliant on the surface, and equally brilliant in some of its internal cavities.

Titanium seems to be one of the most infusible metals known. When the red oxide is exposed to heat in a crucible, it loses its lustre. By the action of the blowpipe it is deprived of its transparence, and becomes of a greyish-white colour.

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charcoal it becomes still more opaque, and of a slate-grey. The artificial carbonate of titanium, exposed to heat in a crucible, loses 25 of its weight, becomes yellow, and as it cools resumes its white colour. Titanium enters into combination with phosphorus, and forms with it a phosphuret. This was prepared by M. Chenevix, by exposing a mixture of phosphate of titanium, charcoal, and a little borax, in a crucible, to a very strong heat. The phosphuret which he obtained was in the form of a metallic button, of a pale white colour, brittle, and granular, and infusible by the action of the blowpipe. This metal enters into combinaVOL. XII.

tion with the acids, and forms salts with them.

If into a phial, filled with muriate of titanium, there is put a stick of tin, and the bottle enclosed with a stopper, a faint rose colour will soon be visible in that part of the solution adjacent to the tin, which by degrees will deepen to an amethystine red, and extend through the whole liquor. If zinc be substituted instead of tin, the solution will be first violet, and at length indigo blue. Attempts have been made to alloy titanium with other metals, but without success. white oxide, and also titanite, in substance, are said to afford, when mixed with enamel flux, a straw yellow colour; and we are informed, that it has been used in the porcelain manufactury at Sévres, as an ingredient in rich browns; but the difficulty of obtaining a regular and uniform tint has at length occasioned it to be abandoned.

The

TITHES, are the tenth part of the increase, yearly arising and renewing from the profits of lands, the stock upon lands, and the personal industry of the inhabitants. And hence they are usually divid ed into three kinds; praedial, mixed and personal. Prædial tithes, are such as arise merely and immediately from the ground, as grain of all sorts, hay, wood, fruits, herbs. For a piece of land, or ground, being called in Latin prædium, whether it be arable, meadow, or pasture, the fruit or produce thereof is called prædial, and consequently the tithe payable for such annual produce is called a præ

dial tithe.

Mixed tithes, are those which arise not immediately from the ground, but from things immediately nourished from the ground; as by means of goods depastured thereupon, or otherwise nourished with the fruits thereof; as colts, calves, lambs, chickens, milk, cheese, eggs,

Personal tithes, are such as arise from the honest labour and industry of man, employing himself in some personal work, artifice, or negotiation; being the tenth part of the clear gain, after charges deducted.

Tithes, with respect to value, are divided into great and small: great tithes, as corn, hay, wood; small tithes, as the prædial tithes of other kinds, together with those that are mixed and personal.

Tithes of common right belong to that church, within the precints of whose pa rish they arise. But one person may prescribe to have tithes within the parish of

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If barren land is converted into tillage, no tithe shall be paid for the first seven years; but if it be not barren in its own nature, as if it be woodland grubbed and made fit for tillage, tithes shall be paid presently; for woodland is fertile, not barren.

Glebe lands, in the hands of the parson, shall not pay tithe to the vicar; nor being in the hands of the vicar, shall they pay tithe to the parson: because the church shall not pay tithes to the church. But if the parson let his rectory, reserv. ing the glebe lands, he shall pay the tithes thereof to the lessee.

No tithes are due for houses; for tithes are only due of such things as renew from year to year. But houses in London are, by decree, which was confirmed by an act of parliament, made liable to the payment of tithes. There is likewise, in most ancient cities and boroughs, a custom to pay tithes for houses; without which there would be no maintenance in many parishes for the clergy.

As to mills, it is now settled by a decree of the House of Lords,upon an appeal from a decree of the Court of Exchequer, that only personal tithes are due from the occupier of a corn mill And the occupier of a new erected mill is liable to tithes, although such mill is erected upon and discharged of tithes. Cro. Jac. 429.

Agistment, or the feeding of cattle, is subject to tithe. In the strict sense of the word, it means the depasturing of a beast the property of a stranger; but this word is constantly used in the books for depasturing the beast of an occupier of land, as well as that of a stranger. An occupier of land is not liable to pay tithe for the pas

ture of horses, or other beasts, which are used in husbandry in the parish in which they are depastured; because the tithe of corn is by their labour increased. But if horses, or other beasts, are used in husbandry out of the parish in which they depastured, an agistment tithe is due for them. No tithe is due for the pasture of milch cattle which are milked in the parish in which they are depastured: because the tithe is paid of the milk of such cattle. Nor is tithe due for the pasture of a saddle-horse, which an occupier of land keeps for himself or servants to ride upon. Cro. Jac. 430. But an occupier of land is liable to an agistment tithe for all such cattle as he keeps for sale. Cro. Eliz. 446. Milk cattle, which are reserved for calving, shall pay no tithe for their pasture whilst they are dry; but if they be afterwards sold, or milked in another parish, an agistment tithe is due for the time they were dry. No tithe is due from an occupier of land for the pasture of young cattle, reared to be used in husbandry, or for the pail. Cro. Eliz. 446. But if such young beasts be sold before they come to such perfection as to be fit for husbandry, or before they give milk, an agistment tithe must be paid for them.

If cattle, which have neither been used in husbandry, nor for the pail, are, after having been kept some time, killed, to be spent in the family of the occupier of the land on which they are depastured, no tithe is due for their pasture. No tithe is due for the cattle, either of a stranger or an occupier, which are depastured in grounds that have in the same year paid tithe of hay But it is generally true, that an agistment tithe is generally due for depasturing any sort of cattle, the property of a stranger. Cro. Eliz. 276.

No agistment tithe is due for such beasts, either of a stranger or an occupier, as are depastured on the head lands of ploughed fields: provided these are not wider than is sufficient to turn the plough and horses upon. Nor is tithe due for such cattle as are depastured upon land that has the same year paid tithe of corn.

If land which has paid tithe of corn one year is left unsown the next year, no agistment is due for such land: because, by this lying fresh, the tithe of the next crop of corn is increased. But if land, which has paid tithe of corn in one year, is left unsown the next year, no agistment is due for such land; but if suffered to lie fallow longer than by the course of husbandry is usual, an agistment tithe is

due for the beast depastured upon such land.

Sheep, after paying tithe of wool, had been fed upon turnips not severed, by which they were bettered to the value of five shillings each, and were then sold; it also appeared that before the next shearing time, as many had been brought in as were sold, and that of these tithe of wool had been paid. It was insisted, that if an agistment were to be paid for the sheep sold, it would be a double tithing but the court held that this was a new increase, and decreed the defendant to account for an agistment tithe. But in a later case the court held that no agistment tithe should be paid.

Corn It is held, that no tithe is due of the rakings of corn involuntarily scattered. Cro. Eliz. 278. But if more of any sort of corn be fraudulently scattered than there would have been if proper care had been taken, tithe is due of the rakings of such

corn.

Cro. Eliz. 475. No tithes are due of the stubbles left in corn-fields after mowing or reaping of corn.

Tithe of hay is to be paid, though beasts of the plough, or pail, or sheep, are to be foddered with such hay. But no tithe is due of hay upon the head lands of plough ed grounds, provided that such headlands are not wider than is sufficient to turn the plough and horses upon.

It is laid down in an old case, that if a man cut down grass, and, while it is in the swathes, carry it away, and give it to his plough-cattle, not having sufficient sustenance for them otherwise, no tithe is due thereof. And, in a modern case, the Court of Exchequer was of opinion, that no tithe is due of vetches, or of clover, cut green, and given to cattle in husbandry.

Tithe of wood is not due in common right, because wood does not renew annually; but it was in ancient times paid in many places by custom Exemptions from tithes are of two kinds; either to be wholly exempted from paying any tithes, or from paying tithes in kind. The former is called de non decimando; the latter de modo decimandi.

Prescription de non decimando is to be free from the payment of tithes, without any recompense for the same. Concerning which the general rule is, that no layman can prescribe de non decimundo, that is, to be discharged absolutely of the payment of tithes, and to pay nothing in lieu thereof; unless he begin his prescription in a religious or ecclesiastical person. But all spiritual persons, as bishops, deans,

prebendaries, parsons, and vicars, may prescribe generally in non decimando.

A modus decimandi, usually called by the name of modus only, is where there is by custom a particular manner of tithing different from the general laws of taking tithes in kind. This is sometimes a pecuniary compensation, as so much an acre for the tithe of land: sometimes a compensation in work and labour; as that the parson shall have only the twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, in consideration of the owner's making it for him; sometimes in lieu of a large quantity, when arrived to great maturity; as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe-eggs, and the like. Any means, in short, whereby the general law of tithing is altered, and a new method of taking them is introduced, is called modus decimandi, or special method of tithing.

In order to make a modus or prescription good, several qualifications are requisite. It must be supposed to have had a reasonable commencement, as that, at the time of the composition, the modus was the real value in money, although it is now become much less It must be something for the parson's benefit; therefore, the finding straw for the body of the church, the finding a rope for a bell, the paying five shillings to the parish-clerk, have been adjudged not to be good. But it is a good modus to be discharged, that one hath time out of mind been used to employ the profits for the repair of the chancel, for the parson hath a benefit by that.

A modus must be certain; so a prescription to pay a penny, or thereabouts, for every acre of land, is void for the uncertainty. And it has been held, that if a precise day of payment be not alleged, the modus will be ill; but now it is holden, that where an annual modus hath been paid, and no certain day for the payment thereof is limited, the same shall be due and payable on the last day of the year.

A modus must be ancient; and therefore, if it be any thing near the value of the tithe, it will be supposed to be of late commencement, and for that reason will be set aside.

A modus must be durable; for the tithe in kind, being an inheritance certain, the recompense for it should be as durable; therefore a certain sum to be paid by the inhabitants of such an house hath been set aside, because the house may go down and none inhabit it. And it must be constant and uninterrupted; for if there have been frequent interruptions, no custom

or prescription can be obtained. But after it hath been once duly obtained, a disturbance for ten or twenty years shall not destroy it.

When a common is divided and inclosed, a modus shall only extend to such tithes as the common yielded before inclosure, such as the tithes of wool, lambs, or agistment: but not to the tithes of hay and corn, which the common, whilst it was common, did never produce.

The parson cannot come himself and set out his tithes without the consent of the owner: but he may attend and see them set out; yet the owner is not obliged to give him notice when he intends to set it out, unless it be by special custom. After it is set out, the care thereof, as to wasting or spoiling, rests upon the parson, and not upon the owner of the land; but the parson may spread, dry, and prepare his corn, hay, or the like, in any conve nient place upon the ground, till it be sufficiently weathered, and fit to be carried into the barn. And he may carry his tithes from the ground, either by the common way, or such other way as the owner of the land uses to carry away his nine parts. If the parson suffer his tithes to stay too long upon the land, the other may distrain the same as doing damage; or he may have an action on the case; but he cannot put in his cattle and destroy the corn, or other tithe; for that would be to make himself judge what shall be deemed a convenient time for taking it away.

By 1 Geo. I. c. 6, all customary pay ments due to clergymen, the payment of tithes, &c is enforced; and the prosecution in this case may be, for any tithes or church-rates, or any customary or other rights, dues, or payments, belonging to any church, or chapel, which of right, by law, and custom, ought to be paid for the stipend or maintenance of any minister or curate, officiating in any church or chapel, provided that the same do not exceed twenty pounds.

But the time is not limited within which the same shall become due; and if any quaker shall refuse to pay or compound for the same, any parson, vicar, curate, farmer, or proprietor of such tithes, or any church-warden, chapelwarden, or other person, who ought to have, receive or collect, any such tithes, rates, dues, or payments, may make complaint to any two justices, other than such as is patron of the church, or chapel, or interested in the tithes.

The number of days is not limited between the time of refusal and the complaint, nor is it hereby required that such

complaint shall be in writing. But it will be more conformable to the usual practice in like cases, if it be in writing. Upon which complaint, the said justices are required to summon in writing, under their hands and seals, by reasonable warning, such quaker, against whom such complaint shall be made. And after appearance, or on default of appearance, (the warning, or summons, being proved before them upon oath,) they may proceed to examine on oath the truth of the complaint, and to ascertain and state what is due and payable.

And by order, under their hands and seals, they may direct and appoint the payment thereof, so as the sum ordered as aforesaid do not exceed ten pounds. And also such costs and charges, as úpon the merits of the cause shall appear, not exceeding ten pounds. And on refusal to pay, any one of the two next justices, by warrant under his hand and seal, may levy the same by distress and sale, rendering the overplus, the necessary charges of distraining being first deducted and allowed by the said justice; unless it be in the case of appeal, and then no warrant of distress shall be granted, till the appeal shall be determined.

As no time is limited for detaining the distress, nor charges allowed for keeping it, it may be sold immediately. Any person, who shall think himself aggrieved by the judgment of the two justices, may appeal to the next sessions; where, if the judgment shall be affirmed, they shall decree the same by order of sessions, and give costs against the appellant, to be levied by distress and sale, as to them shall seem reasonable. And no proceeding herein shall be removed by certiorari, or otherwise, unless the title of such tithes shall be in question.

The withholding of tithes from the parson or vicar, whether the former be a clergyman or lay-appropriator, is among the pecuniary causes cognizable in the ecclesiastical court. But herein a distinction must be taken; for the ecclesiastical courts have no jurisdiction to try the right of tithes, unless between spiritual persons, between spiritual men and laymen, and are only to compel the payment of them, when the right is not disputed.

TOAD, in zoology, belongs to the same genus with the common frog. See RANA. TOBACCO, in botany. See NICOTIANA.

After sowing tobacco-seeds, the ground is watered every day, and in hot weather covered, to prevent its being scorched by the sun; and when the plants are grown

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