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ric character: bill thin, depressed, broad, and at the base covered with bristles; nostrils small and oval; toes three before and one behind, the middle much connected with the outer. There are sixteen species, of which the following is the principal:

T. viridis, or the green tody, is of the size of a wren, and is found in the warm climates of America, and in the West Indies. Its colouring is a beautiful combination of green, white, and red. It is solitary, stupid, feeds upon soft insects, frequents moist situations, sitting long together with its head under its shoulder, and may sometimes be taken by the hand. Birds of this genus are principally found in the warmer territories of America, are somewhat allied to the genus of Flycatchers, but are distinguished by a considerable connection between the toes, whereas those of the flycatcher are completely divided. Several species are much larger than the above.

TOISE is a French measure, containing six feet, or a fathom; a square toise is thirty-six square feet. The toise and the fathom correspond in the division of the feet; but these divisions being unequal, it is necessary to observe that the proportion of the yard, as fixed by the Royal Society at London, to the half toise as fix

ed by the Royal Academy at Paris, is as 36: 33.355.

TOLUIFERA, in botany, balsam of Tolu tree, a genus of the Decandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Terebintaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five-toothed, bell-shaped; petals five, the lowest twice as big, obcordate; style none. There is but one species, viz. T. balsamum, balsam of tolu tree. It is a native of Spanish America, in the province of Tolu, near Carthagena; it is a tree of a considerable size, the bark is thick, rough, and of a brown colour, the branches spread wide on every side; leaves alternate, oblong, four inches long, and two broad in the middle, rounded at the base, acuminate at the end, smooth, of a light green colour, on very short foot stalks; the flowers are produced in small axillary racemes, or bunches, each on a slender pedicle; the corolla has four narrow petals of a yellow colour, a little longer than the calyx, and a fifth, the claw of which is of the same length as the other petals, and the top ovate cordate; stamens within the tube, and terminated by oblong, erect, sulphurcoloured anthers; fruit roundish, the size of a large pea, divided into four cells, each containing one oblong ovate seed. The balsam of Tolu, which is brought to Europe in little gourd shells, is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the tree; it is collected in spoons, which are made of black wax, and from them it is poured into proper vessels; it is of a reddish yellow colour, transparent, in consistence thick and tenacious; by age it grows hard and brittle, so that it may be rubbed into a powder between the finger and thumb; its smell is extremely fragrant; its taste is warm and sweetish; thrown into the fire it immediately liquefies, takes flame, and disperses its agree

able odour.

TOMENTUM, in botany, short wool, a species of hoary or downy pubescence, which covers the surface of many plants, particularly those in the neighbourhood of the sea, and such as in their native soil are exposed to the ravages of bleak and violent winds. The substance in question consists of a number of small hairs, that are so closely interwoven as scarcely to be distinguished by the naked eye, the white appearance arising from their aggregation and compact texture.

TOMEX, in botany, a genus of the Dodecandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: involucre four or five-leaved; calyx none; corolla five-pe

probability of any considerable reduction, during such term, in the number of a set of young lives, who it may be presumed were thought healthy subjects at the time of their nomination, is so small, that the advantages derived from these sources have been sometimes overbalanced by the expenses of management, and, in fact, in several instances of these schemes, which have expired within these few years past, the subscribers have actually received considerably less than the payments they had made would have amounted to without any improvement at interest.

TOP, in naval affairs, a sort of platform surrounding the lower mast head, from which it projects on all sides like a scaffold. The intention of the top is to extend the top-mast shrouds so as to form a greater angle with the mast, and thereby give additional support to the latter. The top is likewise convenient to contain the materials necessary for extending the small sails, and for fixing and repairing the rigging and machinery with greater expedition. In ships of war, the tops are furnished with swivels, musketry, and other fire-arms, and are guarded with a fence of hammocks in time of action. In this case the top is used as a kind of redoubt; and is accordingly fortified for attack or defence, being furnished with arms, and guarded by a thick fence of corded hammocks. The top is employed likewise as a place for looking out, either in the day or night.

TOPAZ, in mineralogy, is a species of the flint genus, of a wine-yellow colour, of all degrees of intensity, and passing to various other colours. It occurs massive, disseminated, sometimes in rolled pieces, but commonly crystallized. There are many varieties. Specific gravity, according to Werner, is about 3.5. The Saxon variety, in a gentle heat, turns white; but a strong heat deprives it of lustre and transparency; the Brazilian, by exposure to a high temperature, burns rose-red; and in a still higher, violet blue. Before the blow-pipe it is scarcely fusible; but exposed to a stream of oxygen gas, it melts into a porcellanous bead. It is fusible with borax, but alkali has little ef fect on it. The Brazilian, Siberian, and other topazes, when heated, exhibit at one extremity positive, and at the other negative, electricity. The Saxon topaz, by friction only, gives signs of electricity. The contituent parts are, according to Vauquelin,

It is found in veins that traverse primitive rocks, accompanied by fluor-spar, tin ore, and arsenical pyrites. It is found in Brazil; in Siberia, among the Uralian mountains. The topaz of the ancients is supposed to be our chrysalite. The Saxon topaz is most valued by jewellers, though even this is in no very high estimation.

TOPIC, in rhetoric, denotes a probable argument, drawn from the several circumstances of a fact, &c. Hence the art of finding and managing such arguments is called by the ancients topica.

TOPOGRAPHY. This term is applied to all those writings, which have for their subjects the description of tracts of country, and the buildings on their surfaces. We often meet with passages in the works of ancient authors which are topographical, or, in other words, descriptive of particular places; but rarely or never with volumes dedicated wholly to this purpose. The scriptures have many of the former, particularly the account of Solomon's temple: Homer abounds with such in his Iliad and Odyssey; and Virgil in his Æneid; to which might be added subsequent writers, though not of equal celebrity. The two Pliny's have favoured us with sketches of this nature, one of which, by the younger, we shall introduce as a specimen. Speaking of his Tuscan villa, he says, "The face of the country is extremely beautiful. Imagine to yourself an amphitheatre of immense circumference, such as could be formed only by the hand of nature: a wide-extended plain is surrounded by mountains, whose summits are covered with tall, ancient woods, stocked with game for all kinds of hunting; the descent is planted with under-woods, among which are frequently little risings, of a rich and deep soil, where a stone, if sought for, is scarce to be found in fertility they yield not to the finest vales, and produce as good crops of corn, although not so early in the year. Below these, on the side of the mountain, is a continued range of vineyards, that extend themselves without interruption far and near, at the foot of which is a sort of border of shrubs. From thence you have meadows and open fields the arable grounds require large

:

oxen and the strongest ploughs; the earth is so tough, and rises in such large clods when it is first broken up, that it cannot be reduced till it has been ploughed nine times the meadows glitter with flowers, and produce the trefoil and other kinds of grass, always soft and tender, and appearing always new; for they are excellently well watered with never-failing springs; yet where these springs are in greatest confluence, they make no marshes, the declivity of the land discharging into the Tiber all the water that it does not drink in."

Had it been the custom at those very distant periods of time to write thus, frequently, and had the art of printing been then invented, how much valuable information would have reached us that is now irretrievably lost; and with what pleasure should we have read descriptions of many important places, the sites of which are now only known by conjecture from some casual circumstance! Numbers of beautiful cities, far surpassing any existing at present in the magnificence of their public structures, have been deserted, through different causes, by their inhabitants, and are yet splendid in their ruins: those offered every incitement for description, but have perished without obtaining this act of justice. Egypt, in particular, furnished the writer with the means of immortalizing his name as a topographer; and it is a subject of severe regret that we have not been gratified by an account of that country, when all the wonderful fragments scattered over its surface were connected by the chain of society, and perfect in themselves; then, we have every reason to suppose, rich woods fringed the borders of their cities, and extensive gardens afforded equal pleasure and advantage to the inhabitants: like a sublime picture, we should have been enabled to contrast its ancient softest tints with its present dreary wastes and gloomy ruins.

The French have ever been an enterprising people, and very early turned their attention to travelling, and topographical description; an interesting account of which may be found in Mr. Johnes's recent translation of "Bertrand de la Broquiere's Travels in Palestine," about the year 1432. The English nation did not entirely neglect this species of literature, in the earliest periods of their annals; as several monks might be mentioned, who gave their brethren, in different parts of the country, manuscript accounts of the foundations of their mo

nasteries, and some slight description of them and their sites. We shall introduce the title of one of those, quoted by Mr. Malcolm, in his "History of St. Bartholomew's Priory, London," in order to convey to the reader an idea of their abilities in our language, about the time of Henry III. or perhaps rather earlier: "For as mooche that the meritory and notable operacyons of famose goode and devoute faders yn God sholde be remembred, for instruction of aftercumers to theyr consolacion and encres of devotion; thys abbrevyat tretesse shall compendiously expresse and declare the wondreful, and, of celestial concel, gracious foundacion of our hoely placeys, called the priory of Seynt Bartholomew yn Smythfyld, and of the hospital of olde tyme longyng to the same; with other notabilities expediently to be knowyn; and most specially the gloriouse and excellent myracles wroghte withyn them by the intercessions, suffrages, and merytys of the forsayd benynge, feythful, and blessid of God, apostyl Sanet Bartholomy, ynto the laude of Almighty God, and agmicion of his infinite power. Ffyrst shall be shewyd who was ffunder of owere hoely places, and howgh, by grace, he was ffyrst pryor of owr priory; and by howgh longe time that he contynued yn the same. Thys churche, yn the honoure of most blessed Bartholomew apostle, ffunded Rayer, of good remembraunce. And theryn to serve God (after the rewle of the most holy fader Austyn) aggregat togidir religiouse men. And to them was prelate xxii yere usynge the office and dignite of a priore." This ancient topographer mentions that Rahere, the prior and founder of the priory, died in the reign of king Stephen, and was succeeded by Thomas, in the year 1144. The following passage will prove that the manuscript was written immediately after the above period : "And yn what ordur he sette the fundament of this temple yn fewe wordes lette us shewe, as they testified to us that sey him, herd him, and were presente yn his workys and dedis; of the whiche sume have take ther slepe yn Cryiste, and sume of them be zitte alyve, wytnesseth of that that we shall after say."

It may be perceived from this specimen of early topography, that we had by no means arrived to the degree of excellence which Pliny and his contemporaries attained in similar productions; neither did we accomplish this very desirable point till within the last century. Those who have perused our best works, his

torical and descriptive, before the reign of George II. will find great accuracy and deep research; but unfortunately we learn nothing of the nature and beauties of the surface of the earth, or of the proportions and sculptures of our buildings, from the valuable works of Leland, Stowe, Speed, Camden, Dugdale, &c. indeed, had not Hollar been employed by the latter, his splendid accounts of monasteries and St. Paul's would have given us no idea whatever of the richness of their forms and decorations.

It is, however, to the authors, whose names we have recapitulated, that we are indebted for admirable models in topography; and it would be injustice to the moderns to deny them the merit of hav ing greatly improved upon them, by their descending to the minutia, which seems to have escaped the attention of their great predecessors. The public has for a very considerable length of time been extremely partial to topographical works, which is evinced by the shoals of publications issued from the London and provincial presses on this subject. The metropolis has had every thing said of it, which the art of man could rake together; almost every county has its historian, and some have had several; the cities have each been described, and every town worth, or not worth a description, has its guide; and, exclusively of those, numbers of tours are continually making their appearance. It appears almost invidious to mention any particular exertions, without enumerating every wellfounded pretension to public approbation; and yet we cannot conclude this article accurately without observing, that Gough's edition of Camden's "Britannia," and his "Sepulchral Monuments" of this kingdom, are worthy of ranking with the works of our best ancient topographers; and that amongst the many excellent county histories we possess, none has a greater claim, for extent and accuracy, than the "History of Leicestershire," by Mr. John Nichols. The environs of London have received every possible attention from the indefatigable brothers, Daniel and Samuel Lysons, who are now pursuing a most laborious undertaking, on nearly the same plan, to be extended to all England; and of London, the great centre, every thing has been said by Stowe, Strype and Malcolm; besides the slighter performance of Pennant, to whom we are more indebted for his other topographical works; and, to conclude, we now possess a Topographi

VOL. XII.

cal Dictionary, the patient and useful production of Mr. Carlisle.

The encouragement all these and similar publications have hitherto uniformly met with has been eminently advantageous to draftsmen and engravers, whose works, for the embellishment of topographical writings, are not surpassed by any which have made their appearance on the continent, an assertion that may be proved decidedly by referring to the recent publications-"The beauties of England and Wales," and "the Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain," two of the best, without exception, that have ever issued from the British press; the joint performance, in the first instance, of Messrs. Britton and Brayley: and in the second, of the former only.

TORDYLIUM, in botany, heart-wort, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class and order. Natural order of Umbellatæ, or Umbelliferæ. Essential character: corolla radiate; all hermaphrodite; fruit suborbicular, notched at the edge; involucres long, undivided. There are seven species.

TORENIA, in botany, so named from Olof Toreen, a Swedish clergyman, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and order. Natural order of Personatæ. Scrophulariæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx two lipped, upper lip threecusped; filaments, the lower with a sterile branchlet; capsule two-celled. There are three species.

TORMENTILLA, in botany, a genus of the Icosandria Polygamia class and order. Natural order of Senticosa. Rosacex, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx eight-cleft, inferior; petals four; seeds roundish, naked, wrinkled, fastened to a small, juiceless receptacle. There are two species: viz. T. erecta, common tormentil; and T. reptans, trailing tormentil. Natives of Europe.

TORNADO, a sudden and vehement gust of wind from all points of the compass, frequent on the coast of Guinea.

A tornado seems to partake much of the nature of a whirlwind, or perhaps of a water-spout, but is more violent in its effects. It commences very suddenly, several clouds being previously drawn together, when a spout of wind, proceeding from them, strikes the ground in a round spot of a few rods or perches diameter, and proceeds thus half a mile or a mile. The proneness of its descent makes it rebound from the earth, throwing such things as are moveable before it, but some sideways, or in a lateral direction from it.