slits, or sights, to direct the surveyor's eye. He places the rule so as to touch the brass centre, and directing it to any particular point, observes the angle it makes, according to the index on the box-wood frame; while an assistant measures the distance, from the centre under the plain-table to the point observed. The surveyor draws a line on the paper, in the direction of the brass rule, from the exact centre of the plain-table, and notes down, at the side of that line, what its length may be in chains, links, &c. according to Gunter's scale; or else in yards and feet, as in familiar measurement. Thus, in fig. 10. A represents the plain-table, placed in the centre of the field BCDE: f g is the rule with sights: the figures written on the sides of the lines proceeding to the four corners express their several distances from the centre of the plain-table. This mode of surveying is peculiarly suited to small surveys, especially to the interiors of enclosed places; and has the advantage of forming the plan on the paper, as the survey proceeds; for the number of yards, &c. being set off, from the scale on the brass rule, on the several directing lines, as from the centre A to B, C, D, and E, respectively and their lengths being de. termined by their several due measures, the lines BC, CD, DE, EB, will give a true fac simile of the shape of the field. The contents must be ascertained by dividing the field, as before explained, into triangles, whose conjoint measurements will amount to its contents.

:

Although the plain-table is not a sufficient instrument for general purposes, it is in the foregoing instance extremely convenient: its use may be extended, under due precaution, to ascertaining the distances of remote, or of inaccessible ob. jects, situated on the same level with itself. But for such purposes a theodolite, standard-triangle, circumferentor, or some instrument capable of taking heights as well as levels, is ordinarily employed. The following proposition will illustrate the above point.

Proposition XI. "To ascertain the distance of an object at C, from the point B, fig. 11." Draw the base line, BA, in any convenient direction, and from each station (commonly marked by surveyors O) observe what angle is made; viz. at B, ascertain the value (or extent) of the angle CBA, and at A, the value of the angle CAB: take care to be very correct as to the measurement of your base line; which we will take at 120 yards. Now,

the points A and B being established at a certain distance, and the two angles they mutually form with C being ascertained by the graduated edge of the instrument, it follows that the intersection of the two sights, from B to C, and from A to C, will determine the exact locality of C: let the line BC be measured on the same scale from which AB was taken, and it will show the distance of C from B. In this manner the whole horizon may be surveyed from the base line AB; except such parts as may lay in, that is, occupy the same direction therewith. And it is to be observed, that in laying a base line, the nearer the angle of intersection, as at C, is to a right angle, the more exactly will the distance be denoted. Hence a great extent of base line is to be preferred, when at command; and if practicable, no angle under twenty degrees should be made it is always better to take a new station than to make acute angles with the object to be surveyed; which may, for the most part, be easily avoided in horizontal sights; but in vertical observations, very acute angles will ordinarily occur.

Thus, in Proposition X. " which relates to ascertaining the heights of P and O, (fig. 12.) from the level of C, and the distance of C from B, cannot be effected but by acute angles.' Here, in lieu of laying the base line, AB, as nearly as possible square with the point C, we place it in the exact direction therewith. Then, after taking the angles of elevation from the horizon at the station B, to the two points O and P, and measuring the exact length of the base line AB, the instrument is removed from B to A; where two more sights are taken to O and P. We have thus the two angles, PBA and PAB, determining the locality of P; and the two angles, OBA and OAB, determining the locality of O. Now the line BA being prolonged, and the perpendicular, PO, being likewise continued, will intersect in C. The lines, PB, OB, and CB, being measured on the

same scale whence the base line AB was taken, the altitudes of P and of O, with their intermediate distance, will be given; while the distance of C from B will be exhibited.

We shall conclude this article with a few words on the manner of carrying a line of sight over a hill, as is often done for the formation of a road, or for the conducting a canal over a rising ground: in which case the level must be preserv ed.

Proposition XI. "To carry a line of sight or a level, in the direction of AB, over the rising ground C." Ascertain where the line of sight strikes the hill at e; carry the instrument to that point, and, in the extract direction of the former sight, take a second sight from e to a, or to any convenient spot, where a pole and target should be fixed. See LEVELS. As this survey for a canal is to be taken by means of a spirit level, the exact altitude of each sight must be taken, by noting the height of the target from the plain, AB, at every sight, or by following up a regular succession of levels, each of which will be the height of the instrument above the last. Thus the hill will be ascended: the descent on the other side is effected by the inversion of the foregoing mode; always taking the descending levels of the target for canals; but for roads, or for laying down a meridional line, when once the summit is gained, a long sight may be taken to a distant object: this subject is pleasingly exemplified in a new work published by Longman and Co. entitled "Mathematics simplified, and practically illustrated," in which a great variety of instructive and useful matter will be found, together with a description of a new instrument on a very simple construction, said to be equal to every branch of surveying.

SUS, the hog, in natural history, a genus of Mammalia, of the order of Bellux. Generic character: four front teeth in the upper jaw, converging; six in the lower, projecting: two tusks in the upper jaw, short; two in the lower, standing out; snout truncate, prominent, and moveable feet cloven. These animals are allied by their teeth to the carnivorous quadrupeds, and by their cloven feet to the ruminating ones. They feed almost indifferently upon animal and vegetable substances, devouring with avidity what is most nauseous and disgusting. They use their snout for digging up the ground in quest of roots, are fond of rolling and wallowing in mud, and are distinguished by extreme fecundity. There are six species, of which the following are the most important:

S. scrofa, the common hog. All the varieties of this animal originate in the wild boar, which is found in most of the temperate regions of Europe and Asia. It is smaller than the domesticated animal, and uniformly of a dark grey colour, approaching to black. It is armed with formidable tusks, sometimes ten inches, or even more, in length; those in the under

jaw curving inwards, and capable, from their size, strength, and sharpness, of inflicting the most dreadful wounds. Before these animals attain their third year they are gregarious, and, when danger is at hand, particularly, they muster in numerous parties, and with great promptitude, at the signal of alarm. Uniting thus, they present so formidable an array, as speedily to disperse the enemy, few creatures, or none, daring to commence an attack against such a combination of strength and valour as they exhibit. When the wild boar is complete in growth, he depends upon his solitary exertions for his protection, is seldom seen in society, ranging the forests alone; rarely commencing an attack, as his food consists almost solely of roots and vegetables, but repelling one with all the fierceness of courage, and all the resentment of retaliation.

These animals are often hunted by dogs, particularly of the mastiff breed. After many pauses in their progress, in which they turn round, and defy their enemies to the attack, which, however, is generally declined, they at length refuse to proceed, and halt for the grand and final conflict; in which, though eventually overpowered by the number of dogs, and the spears of the hunters, they defend themselves with the most astonishing intrepidity, perseverance, and energy; and, regarding their case as absolutely desperate, determine, at least, not to die unrevenged. See Mammalia, Plate XXI. fig. 1.

The common hog has smaller tusks and larger ears than the wild boar, and is generally of a dull, or dirty, yellowish white. It is clumsy in its shape, filthy in its manners, and gross and ravenous in its food, devouring almost every variety of rejected animal or vegetable substance, and distinguished by the quantity nearly as much as by the rankness of its food. The offal of the kitchen, garden, and barn, furnishes it with an excellent banquet. It was rejected as unclean both by the founders of the Jewish and Mahometan religion, as unfit for human sustenance, for which it is, nevertheless, most admirably adapted, and of incalculable value. The sailors of the British navy are in a great degree supported by the flesh of that animal, which Moses and Mahomet decided to be unfit for the food of man; and in most countries of Europe, it is an important and indispensable article of the food of the inhabitants. The hog is possessed of an acute smell, and is

highly agitated during the violent blow ing of certain winds, uttering the most dreadful screams, and exhibiting the highest restlessness, apprehension, and turbulence. It is fattened to an extraordinary size, and has been known to attain the almost incredible weight of 1215 pounds. It produces two litters in the year, and in each from ten to twenty young ones. The male must be kept at a distance from these, as it will otherwise destroy and devour them, and the female herself has often acted this unnatural part, and is particularly apt to do it, if observed attentively, during the crisis of parturition. The hog was unknown in America when that quarter of the world was discovered by the Spaniards, but now abounds in every part of it. The Chinese breed is most valued in England. There is an accidental variety of the domestic hog with undivided hoofs.

S. Ethiopicus, or the Ethiopian hog, is very similar to the last. It is fierce and formidable in the highest degree, and burrows in the ground, in deep recesses, which it prepares with both its hoofs and nose. It is particularly distinguished by a large lobe, or wattle, beneath each eye.

S. baby-roussa is remarkable for the form and situation of the upper tusks, which are placed externally, and turn upwards in a curve towards the forehead. It abounds in the Indian islands, lives solely on vegetables, and rests itself, in sleep, by hooking its upper tusks round the branch of a tree. It can swim with rapidity, and is valued for food.

S. sajassu, or the Mexican hog, or pecari, is the only animal of the genus native of America, where it is gregarious, fierce, and dangerous, and is occasionally seen in herds of several hundreds. It feeds on fruits and roots, and also on serpents, lizards, and toads; and will attack and devour the rattlesnake, we are told, without the slightest injury. It is less than the common hog, has bristles nearly resembling the prickles of an hedge-hog, and is also distinguished by an orifice on its back, from which perpetually issues a most fetid watery humour. The pecari will skin snakes by means of its teeth and feet, before it devours them, with great dexterity. The common hog is reported, on good authority, to attack and eat the rattlesnake with the same impunity as the pecari. For the baby-roussa, see Mammalia, Plate XX. fig. 2.

SUSPENSION, or Points of Suspension,

in mechanics, are those points in the axis or beam of a balance, wherein the weights are applied, or from which they are suspended.

SUSPENSION of arms, in war, a short truce agreed on by both armies, in order to bury the dead, wait for fresh instructions, or the like.

SUSPENSION, in rhetoric, is the carrying on a period or discourse, in such a manner as to keep the reader in expectation of something considerable in the conclusion. But great care must be taken that the reader's expectation be not disappointed; for nothing is more contemptible than to promise much and perform little; or to usher in an errant trifle with the formality of preface and solemn preparation.

SWABBER, an inferior officer on board ships of war, whose employment it is to see that the decks are kept neat and clean.

SWARTZIA, in botany, so named in honour of Olof Swartz, M. D. a genus of the Polyadelphia Polyandria class and order. Essential character: calyx four-leaved; petals single, lateral, flat; legume one-celled, bivalve; seeds arillated. There are six species.

SWEDENBORGIANS, a religious society, who have been so called from Emanuel Swedenborg, in whose theological works are taught the doctrines which they receive. He was born at Stockholm in Sweden, Jan. 29, A. D. 1689; and died in London, the 29th March, A. D. 1772. His father was Jesper Swedberg, bishop of West Gothia, and president of the Swedish church in Pennsylvania and London. In the year 1716, at the age of 28, he was associated by Charles XII. with the celebrated Polhamman,called the Swedish Archimedes, to assist him in the direction of buildings and mechanical works, and without solicitation appointed extraordinary assessor to the Royal College of the Mines, the King having given him the choice either of this office, or that of professor in the Royal Academy of Upsal. "An universal knowledge in the belles-lettres, (says Monsieur Sandel, in his eulogium delivered in the name of the ACADEMY of SCIENCES at STOCKHOLM) and a remarkable degree of learning, had at that time made his name known both within and without the kingdom." "You may find in him at once (says the same gentleman) a happy assemblage of an excellent memory, a prompt conception, and a most clear judgment, united to a desire that was never cloyed, and the

strongest inclination of an assiduous study after acquirements of the most certain kind in philosophy, in almost all kinds of mathematics, natural history, physics, chemistry, anatomy, and finally theology, without enlarging on the eastern and European languages, in which he was very well versed." In 1718, at the siege of Fredericksall, he executed a work of the greatest importance. By cutting through the mountains, and raising the valleys for two miles and an half from Stromstad to Idef-jol, which separates Sweden from Norway, he caused two galleys, five large boats, and a sloop, to be sent there; by which Charles XII. was enabled to have all the great artillery for the siege carried to Fredericksall. In 1719, he was ennobled by Queen Ulrica Eleanora, and named Swedenborg, and took his seat with the nobles of the equestrian order. His various works in philosophy, the belles-lettres, mathematics, mechanics, natural history, physics, chemistry, and anatomy, amount to 24 articles, one of which, his Opera Philosophica and Mineralia, published, part at Leipsic and part at Dresden in 1734, comprehend three folio volumes. Prior to the publication of this work, the Academic Consistory and the Society of Sciences at Upsal had requested him to solicit the place of professor of the sublime and abstracted mathematics, which had been filled by Nils Celsius. This he however declined. He was enrolled a member of the Society of Sciences at Upsal, of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and of the Academy of St. Petersburg. His works furnish the editors of the Acta Eruditorum, published at Leipsic, with many articles, and the whole of his Treatise on Iron, and the preparations of steel, was inserted by the authors of the Description of Arts and Trades at Paris, in their collection of the best things written on those subjects.

Nearly all his works are written in the Latin language. After occupying himself until the age of 53, in the investigation of philosophical and natural subjects, he dedicated himself wholly to spiritual things. In his letter to the King of Sweden, he says, "I have already informed your majesty, and beseech you to recall it to mind, that the Lord our Saviour manifested himself to me in a sensible personal appearance; that he has commanded me to write what has been already done, and what I have still to do: that he was afterwards graciously pleased to endow we with the privilege

of conversing with angels and spirits, and to be in fellowship with them." "When my writings are read with attention, and cool reflection, (in which many things are to be met with as hitherto unknown,) it is easy enough to conclude, that I could not come by such knowledge, but by a real vision, and converse with those in the spiritual world." "If any doubt shall still remain, I am ready to testify, with the most solemn oath that can be offered in this matter, that I have said nothing but essential and real truth, without any mixture of deception This knowledge is given to me from our Saviour, not for any particular merit of mine, but for the great concern of all Christians' salvation and happiness; and as such, how can any venture to assert it is false?" From the year 1744, he continued to write, and from 1747, to publish his theological works in the Latin language. These, if collected in an uniform edition, would perhaps fill in the English language 30 octavo volumes of 500 pages. His two most extensive works are, his Arcana Cœlestia, in 12 octavo volumes, in which he explains, verse by verse, every word in the books of Genesis and Exodus, according to what he calls the spiritual sense; and his Apocalypsis Explicata, (published since his decease,) in 6 octavo volumes, wherein he treats of the book of Revelations in the same manner. The doctrines exhibited in his writings are to the following purpose:

1. Contrary to Unitarians, who deny, and to trinitarians, who hold, a trinity of persons in the godhead, the Swedenborgians maintain that there is a divine trinity in the person of Jesus Christ, consisting of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, just like the human trinity in every individual man, of soul, body, and operation; and as the latter trinity constitutes one man, so the former constitutes one Jehovah God, who is at once the Creator, Redeemer, and Regenerator.

2. That Jehovah God himself came down from heaven, and assumed human nature for the purpose of removing hell from man, of restoring the heavens to order, and preparing the way for a new church upon earth; and that herein consists the true nature of redemption, which was effected solely by the omnipotence of the Lord's divine humanity. But Swedenborg declares, that this divine humanity is from the Father, and is in itself like unto its divinity, and not like the humanity of another man; for, "with the Lord, the former forms, which were

from the maternal principle, were altogether destroyed and extirpated, and divine forms received in their place; for the divine love doth not agree with any but a divine form; all other forms it absolutely casts out; hence it is, that the Lord, when glorified, was no longer the Son of Mary."

3. They hold the notion of pardon obtained by a vicarious sacrifice, or atonement, as a fundamental and fatal error; but that repentance is the foundation of the church in man; that it consists in a man's abstaining from all evils, because they are sins against God, &c.; that it is productive of regeneration, which is not an instantaneous, but a gradual work, effected by the Lord alone, through charity and faith, during man's co-operation. 4. That man has free will in spiritual things, whereby he may join himself by reciprocation with the Lord.

5. That the imputation of the merits and righteousness of Christ is a thing as absurd and impossible, as it would be to impute to any man the works of creation: for the merits and righteousness of Christ consist in redemption, which is as much the work of a divine and omnipotent Being as creation itself. They maintain, however, that the imputation which really takes place, is an imputation of good and evil; and that this is according to a man's life.

6. That the doctrine of predestination and justification by faith alone is a mere human invention, and not to be found in the word of God.

7. That the two sacraments of baptism and the holy supper are essential institutions in the New Church, the genuine and rational uses of which are now discovered, together with the spiritual sense of the holy word.

8. That the sacred scripture contains a threefold sense, namely, celestial, spiritual, and natural, which are united by correspondences; and that in each sense it is divine truth, accommodated, respectively, to the angels of the three heavens, and also to men on earth.

9. The Word is inspired, not only as to all the particular expressions, but also as to all the particular small letters which compose every expression, and thus as to the smallest dot and tittle, and inwardly in itself, has stored up the arcana of heaven, which do not appear in the letter, when set in each of those things, which the Lord himself spake when he was in the world, and which he before spake by the prophets; there are things celestial,

and altogether divine, and elevated from the sense of the letter; and this not only in each of the expressions, but also in each of the syllables of the expressions, and in each of the apexes of every syllable. Hence the books of the word have an internal sense, and are the following: the five books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, one and two, Kings, one and two, the Psalms, the Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi; and in the New Testament, the four Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, and the Revelations.

10. That in the spiritual world there is a sun distinct from that of the natural world, the essence of which is pure love from Jehovah God, who is in the midst thereof; that the heat also proceeding from that sun is, in its essence, love; and the light thence proceeding is, in its essence, wisdom; and by the instrumentality of that sun, all things were created, and continue to subsist, both in the spiritual and in the natural world.

11. They maintain, that there is not in the universal heaven a single angel, that was created so at the first; nor a single devil in all hell, that had been created an angel of light, and was afterwards cast out of heaven; but that all, both in heaven and hell, are of the human race; in heaven such as had lived in the world in heavenly love and faith, and in hell such as lived in hellish love and faith.

12. That the material body never rises again; but that man, immediately after his departure from this life, rises again as to his spiritual or substantial body, (which was inclosed in his material body, and formed for his predominant love, whether it be good or evil) wherein he continues to live as a man in a perfect human form, in all respects as before, save only the gross material body, which he puts off by death, and which is of no further use.

13. That the state and condition of man after death is according to his past life in this world; and the predominant love, which he takes with him into the spiritual world, continues with him for ever, and can never be changed to all eternity; but if evil, he abides in hell to all eternity.

14. That true conjugal love, which can only subsist between one husband and one wife, is a primary characteristic of the new church, being grounded in the marriage of goodness and truth, and cor