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have carried these combinations into the oral language of the vulgar. They might indeed have invented an oral language corresponding to their characters; but the genius of the Chinese seems rather to direct them to study than to conversation. In order to render probable a transition from hieroglyphics to letters, we must suppose the spoken and the written language to have been connected with each other, and to have had similar combinations. Now we may ob

serve,

Secondly, That the spoken language of China did not at all favour the plan of making their characters representative of sound, for, being all monosyllables, and not very numerous, there would not be the same call for attention to the elementary sounds; and what would still more prevent this direction of the attention, they did not vary the articulation, but the tone, in order to express a variation of meaning. Add to this,

Thirdly, The great extent of the empire of China, and its dependencies, would cause a great variety in the dialect. This would contribute to increase the attention of their literati to their written language, since this (as we have seen it actually is) might be understood. independently of their words.

Fourthly, If we admit the very probable hypothesis of De Guignes, that the Chinese characters were brought from Egypt, and that they had originally no connection with the spoken language of the country into which they were imported,―that, in fact, they were applied to denote names different from those with which they had been before connected; we shall perceive at once the reason why the combinations of the characters were originally unaccompanied with corresponding combinations of sounds. After this there is no difficulty in admitting that the written must continue independent of the spoken language, especially among people so little addicted to innovation as the Chinese.

3. It is urged, that the invention of letters is ascribed to the gods by several of the ancients; that Pliny asserts the use of letters to have been eternal; and that the Jewish doctors maintain that God created alphabetical writing.

We say, in reply, that the Jews had no other records than our own. The ancients were accustomed to ascribe to a divine origin every thing for which they could not account. As for Pliny, he exVOL. XII.

pressly says, that the Phenicians were famed as the inventors of letters.

It must be remarked, that these facts are adduced to prove that no records of the invention remain; indirectly, therefore, they favour the hypothesis of the divine origin of letters. If, however, the transition were simple and gradual, perhaps the era of invention could not have been fixed even by the nation in which it occurred. We have no more reason to expect records of the invention of letters than of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, or of the Chinese characters.

The arguments à priori for the divine origin of letters remain to be considered. These are, the difficulty of the invention in any stage of human progress, and its antiquity, which very much increases the improbability of its human origin.

1. As to the difficulty of the invention, it is urged that we are to suppose that the inventors of letters decomposed the sounds of words not only into syllables, but into letters; that observing the component parts of syllables, and denoting them by appropriate marks, they used these marks for those elementary sounds in the visible representation of other words into which those sounds entered. This dissection of the articulate sounds of man, tracing them through all their various combinations, and denoting them by a few simple marks, whose combinations might express every possible combination of sound, supposes a habit of patient experimenting, of discriminating examination, and of exact classification, which ill accord with the uncultivated state of human intellect in the early period of society. But,

2. When we consider the antiquity of the use of letters, and find them in a state of perfection so early as the time of Moses, this difficulty appears insuperable. We must admit that men, in the earliest ages, stepped at once from a tedious and awkward, and frequently unintelligible, mode of communication, to one which answers every purpose in the shortest way, and that, unlike all other inventions, it was brought at once to such a state of perfection, that no succeeding alphabet has any real superiority over the ancient Hebrew.

With respect to the difficulty of the invention, the objection loses all its force, when a simple and easy procedure, probable in the given circumstances, can be pointed out. To obviate the difficulty arising from the apparent perfection of N n

the most ancient alphabets, we may ob

serve,

First, That in a perfect alphabet every letter should represent only one definite sound, and every known sound in the given language should have a corresponding letter. Now we have no instance of a perfect alphabet among modern languages, and have therefore no reason to suppose that the first alphabet was perfect. But even admitting that some of the ancient alphabets which have been transmitted to us were perfect, yet it must be observed,

Secondly, That no known alphabet, however ancient, is in the state of its original invention. Cadmus, who was born in the east, carried with him into Greece sixteen letters only; the least copious alphabet we are acquainted with has twenty-two. It is not probable that Cadmus introduced fewer than he possessed; it is more probable that he invented new ones, to express sounds which he found among the aborigines.

It has generally been supposed of late, that alphabetical writing was formed from hieroglyphics; but we have met with no one, except De Guignes, who has stated the steps of the transition in a satisfactory manner. "Perhaps," says this writer, we have done too much honour to the inventor of letters, whoever he were, in supposing that he dissected the voice into two parts, and invented marks of two kinds, some to represent consonants, and others vowels."

66

The following is, with some variations, the hypothesis of this writer. Hierogly phics, with their exactness of delineation, lost their original significancy. This must first be the case with words of most frequent recurrence, and which entered most into combinations with other words; become simple denotements of sound, they were employed to express their respective sounds in combinations of other monosyllabic words, which, in like manner, had lost their original significancy. Hence, by degrees, they became re. presentative of the component parts of all words into which their respective sounds entered. They were always words, but very simple, consisting only of a consonant and a vowel. Variation in the pronunciation of the vowel would occur in different dialects, and hence these marks would be regarded as consonants capable of being differently modified by simple vocal sounds. Letters, at first monosyllabic words, then became marks for the component parts of dissyl

labic or pollysyllabic words; and then for the unchangeable part of those syllables, that is, for consonants. In the most ancient state of the oriental languages, vowel sounds had no distinct marks. In the latter, marks were joined to the consonants to express the different sounds with which the radical consonant was invested. Among the western nations, a different procedure was adopted. some cases they used the mark which they had received from the oriental nations for an aspirate and vowel, for the vowel itself; and having once commenced the use of distinct marks for vowels, the procedure was continued, and new marks adopted, to express noticed variations of vocal sounds.

In

In support of this statement may be adduced the following observations:

1. We have seen that hieroglyphics did become significant of sounds; and (see LANGUAGE) that words, originally significant of one class of ideas, being applied to a second, lost their connection with the former, and became directly sig. nificant of the latter.

2. We have reason to believe that words were originally monosyllabic in those nations where alphabetical writing was invented, and that the combination of old sounds, or the use of them, uncompounded to express new ideas, was the mode employed to extend the capabilities of their language. Hence the same word would frequently occur in combination, and though its different significations must originally have been represented by different hieroglyphics, yet, as these lost their significancy, they would easily be. come as extensive in their meaning as the sounds themselves. And it is obvious, that the most simple of those hierogly. phics which were used for the same sound would be employed to represent the sound.

3. It has been shown to be highly probable, that originally every consonant had its vowel sound. Hence all syllables might be represented by two, or at most three, European letters. This circumstance would materially diminish the varieties of syllabic sounds.

4. The probability of the theory advanced depends greatly upon the bypo thesis, that originally letters were syllabic. The following facts appear to prove this: The ancient oriental alphabets had no denotements for vowels; and even if this be disputed, it must be admitted that they had many words into which none of the supposed vowel marks entered. The

Ethiopian alphabet is entirely syllabic. The simple letters denote a consonant and a short a, and marks were added to them to denote other vowels where used. What is doubly singular, they have in many cases added marks to these syllabic characters, to denote they have no vowel belonging to them. In the Coptic and Arabic there are syllabic characters. The alphabets of the eastern Asiatics are principally syllabic, some with ŏ, others with ă, joined to a consonant. These circumstances render probable the account here given of the transition from hieroglyphics to letters. The following observations more completely ascertain its high probability.

5. The letters of some of the ancient alphabets have so great a resemblance to the hieroglyphical characters, indeed are such exact transcripts of them, that a simple inspection is sufficient to convince us that hieroglyphics were the origin of letters. This, however, proves little as to the invention of alphabetical writing, except that it was subsequent to the use of hieroglyphics. But,

Its

6. These characters, in many instances, retained their original significancy, which proves them to have been, as De Guignes supposes, denotements for words. We must not expect to find this significancy in all words of which they form component parts; but in such only, in whose visible representation the original hieroglyphic formed a component part. Now we must observe, first, that the names of several of the oriental letters are still by themselves significant, and that some of these letters are similar to the Chinese clefs, which have the same signification. Thus the yod signifies the hand. form, in some alphabets, resembles the Chinese character for hand. The daleth of the Hebrews, Phenicians, and Ethiopians, signifies a gate, and the action of opening. The hieroglyphic, which among the ancient Chinese represented a gate, is exactly similar to this letter. The p phi of the Hebrews, and af of the Ethiopians, signify the mouth. The Chinese characters for the mouth all resemble it. They ain signifies the eye. The Phenicians and the Chinese employed the outline of the eye as a denotement of the object. They shin in Hebrew signifies the teeth, and its figure is still found among the Chinese, with the same signification. The mim signifies water. The corresponding Samaritan and Ethiopian characters have a strong resemblance to the

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Chinese hieroglyphic for water. Lastly, the aleph (originally perhaps signifying ox) signifies unity, the action of conducting, pre-eminence. The Phenician form of this exactly represents the Chinese character for one, and every action by which we are at the head of others. But these letters are not only significant by themselves, but secondly in combinations. Thus was expressed by the monosyllable ya, ye, or you; to this another monosyllable, which had equally a signification relative to the figure, being added, formed a word of two syllables. For instance, instead of the present denomination of daleth, we may reasonably suppose its original sound to have been da. The word yada, hieroglyphically represented by a gate and a hand, is found in the Hebrew with a signification derived from that of the letters composing it; to cast out (as we might say, hand him to the door,) to extend. Add to this the word y ain (originally probably sounded ho,) which signifies the eye, and we have yadaho, which should signify to open the eyes, to extend the view, &c. and metaphorically, to know, to understand; and in fact this is the signification of y in Hebrew. But this is not all; for exactly the same procedure has been adopted by the Chinese. Ki, which signifies to examine, is composed of three radical characters, of which the first signifies the hand, the second a gate, the third the eye. So also kia is composed of three characters, one signifying the teeth, the other two, gate, or opening, which signifies to break through, to make a great opening. In Hebrew 17 is similarly composed. It signifies to plunder, to lay waste. Tchi is a large collection of water. composed of the characters for hand and water. The same compound was formed among the Hebrews, and p yam, signifies a great collection of water, or the sea. Arabic the letters thet or earth, and mim or water, form the word tham, and signify a flood The Hebrew thin is composed of the thet or earth, and the nun, which signifies man, i. e. man of the earth, and further, to form, to create. In both these instances, the Chinese correspond in their combinations with the alphabetical writing. Many other instances might be brought. We will adduce one, to which there is no corresponding combination in the Chinese language, Ab, or Haba, 8, signifies father The component parts of it signify principal of the house.

It was

In

The papers of De Guignes, to which we are very greatly indebted on this sub

ject are to be found in Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres, vol. 34, &c.

WRONG stamp. By 37 George III. c. 136, any instrument (except bills of exchange, promissory notes, or other notes, drafts, or orders) liable to stamp-duty, whereon shall be impressed any stamp of a different denomination, but of an equal or greater value than the stamp required, may be stamped with the proper stamp after the execution, on payment of duty and five pounds penalty, but without any allowance for the wrong stamp.

Likewise any such instrument (except as aforesaid) being engrossed without having been first stamped, or having a stamp thereon of less value than required, the same may be stamped after the execution, on payment of the duty and ten pounds penalty only, for each skin thereof: but in case it shall be satisfactorily proved to the commissioners of stamps, that the same hath been so engrossed, either by accident or inadvertency, or from urgent necessity, or unavoidable circumstances, and without any intention of fraud, the Commissioners are authorized to stamp the same within sixty days after the execution, to remit the penalty in part, or in all, and to indemnify persons so engrossing the same.

WULFENIA, in botany, so named from the Rev. Francis Xavier Wulfen, a genus of the Diandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: corolla tubular, ringent, with the upper lip short, entire, the lower three-parted, with the aperture bearded; calyx five-parted; capsule two-celled, four-valved. There is only one species, viz. W. carinthiaca, a native of Carinthia, on the highest Alps.

WURMBEA, in botany, so named in honour of Frederick Baron Van Wurmb, and order. Natural order of Coronaria. a genus of the Hexandria Trigynia class Junci, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx none; corolla six-parted, with a hexangular tube; filaments inserted into the throat. There are three species.

WYTE, or WITE, in our ancient customs, a pecuniary penalty or mulct. The Saxons had two kinds of punishments, were and wyte; the first for the more grieVous offences. The wyte was for the less heinous ones. It was not fixed to any certain sum, but left at liberty to be varied according to the nature of the case. Hence also wyte, or wittree, one of the terms of privilege granted to our sportsmen, signifying a freedom or immunity from fines or amercements.

X.

X, our alphabet, and a double conso

or r, is the twenty-second letter of

nant.

It was not used by the Hebrews or ancient Greeks; for, as it is a compound letter, the ancients, who used great simplicity in their writings, made use of, and expressed this letter by its component letters cs. Neither have the Italians this letter, but express it by ss. X begins no word in our language but such as are of Greek original, and is in few others but what are of Latin derivation, as perplex, reflexion, defluxion, &c. We often express this sound by single letters, as cks in backs, necks; by ks in books, breaks; by cc in access, accident; by ct in action, unction, &c. In numerals it expresses 10, whence in old Roman manuscripts it is used for denarius; and as such seems to be

made of two V's placed one over the other. When a dash is added over it, thus X, it signifies ten thousand.

XANTHE, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Syngenesia class and order. Essential character: flowers dioecious; calyx five, six-parted, permanent; corolla five, six-petalled; males with one filament, bearing five anthers, collected into a shield-shaped head: females with five barren anthers; capsule globose, crowned with the stigma, five-striated, five-valved; seeds very many, involved in the pulp. There are two species, viz. X. quapoya, and X. panari.

XANTHIUM, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia Pentandria class and order. Natural order of Composite Nucamentaceæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential charac

ter: male, calyx common, imbricate; corolla one-petalled, five-cleft, funnel-form; receptacle chaffy; female, calyx involucre, two-leaved, two flowered: corolla none; drupe dry, muricated, two-cleft; nucleus two-celled. There are five species.

XANTHORIZA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Polygynia class and order. Natural order of Ranunculaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx none; petals five; nectary five, pedicelled; capsule five, one-seeded. There is only one; species, viz. X. apitiolia, a native of North America.

XANTHOXYLUM, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Pentandria class and order. Natural order of Hederaceæ. Terebintacex, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five-parted; corolla none; female, pistil five; capsule five, one-seeded. There is but one species, viz. X clava herculis, tooth-ache tree; it grows naturally in Pennsylvania and Maryland.

XERANTHEMUM, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class and order. Natural order of Composite Discoideæ. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx imbricate, rayed, with the ray coloured: down bristleshaped receptacle chaffy. There are twenty-seven species.

XIMENIA, in botany, so named in honour of the Rev. Father Francis Ximenes, a Spaniard, a genus of the Octandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Aurantia, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx four-cleft; petals four, hairy, rolled back; drupe one-seeded. There are three species.

XIPHIAS, the sword-fish, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Apodes. Generic character: head with the upper jaw ending in a sword-shaped snout; mouth without teeth; gill-membrane eight-rayed; body roundish, without scales. There are three species: X. gladeus, or the common sword-fish, is of the length of twenty feet, and is particularly distinguished by its upper jaw being stretched to a considerable distance beyond the lower, flat above and beneath, but edges at the sides, and of a bony substance, covered by a strong epidermis. It is a fish extremely rapacious, and finds in the above instrument a weapon of attack and destruction, able to procure it the most ample supplies. It first transfixes its prey with this snout, and then devours it. It is found in the Mediterranean, chiefly about Sicily, and is used as food by the Sicilians, who preserve it for a long time by salting it in small pieces. See Pisces, Plate VI. fig. 5.

X. platypterus, or the broad-finned sword-fish, is found in the Northern, Atlantic, and Indian Seas, and is considered as one of the most fatal enemies of the whale tribe. Its strength is so great, that it is said to have pervaded with its snout, or sword, the plank of an East Indiaman; and a plank and snout, in attestation of this circumstance, the latter closely driven into the former, are to be seen in the British Museum, having been communicated to Sir Joseph Banks by an East India captain, of honour and veracity. When young this fish is used for food, but not after it exceeds four or five feet in length.

XIPHIDIUM, in botany, a genus of the Triandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Ensatæ. Irides, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla six-petalled, equal; capsule superior, three-celled, many-seeded. There are two species, viz. X. album and X. cæruleum.

XYLOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of the Octandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: calyx four-toothed; corolla four-petalled; nectary eight-cleft; filaments inserted into the nectary; drupe juiceless, large, four or five-grooved; nuts eight or ten, difform. There is but one species, viz. X. granatum, a native of the East Indies.

XYLOMELUM, in botany, a genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Protex, Jussieu. Essential character: ament with a simple scale; petals four, staminiferous; stigma club-shaped; obtuse. This is one of twenty new genera from the South Seas; the characters of which are given by Dr. Smith.

XYLON. See GossYPIUM.

XYLOPHYLLA, in botany, sea-side lau rel, a genus of the Pentandria Trigynia class and order. Natural order of Tricoccæ. Euphorbiæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx five-parted, coloured; corolla none; stigmas jagged; capsule three-celled; seeds two. There are seven species.

XYLOPIA, in botany, bitter-wood, a genus of the Polyandria Polygynia class and order. Natural order of Coadunatæ. Anonæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx three-leaved; petals six; capsule one or two-seeded, four-cornered, twovalved; seeds arilled. There are three species.

XYLOSMA, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Polyandria class and order. Essential character: calyx four or five-parted; corolla none, but a small annular crenulate nectary surrounding the sta

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