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ing during the wheel, and closing up to the centre as the reserve, with the colours, passes into their rear. When there are guns with a battalion, they move on such occasion to the angles most liable to be attacked; four pieces of cannon are needful to render a square perfectly safe; but for their accommodation, it will be necessary for each face to move forward seven paces; whereby the interior of the square will be greatly increased, and space given for the cannon to be served at the angles; this evolution is exhibited under fig. 17.

The column en potence, that is, in form of a gibbet, is peculiarly deceptive; especially when that column is a close one, having no intervals between the companies; in this the whole form one solid mass. If discovered, the enemy will certainly direct their artillery towards it; thereby doing great execution. The great object of this formation is, to push forward a strong force against some particular point, so as to bear down whatever opposes it, or suddenly to form a flank where a charge of cavalry is expected; in the latter case, the rear division of the column halts until there is space enough for it to wheel, (to the right, if to secure the right flank,) and as each division does the same in succession, it is evident a line is formed, at right angles with the front line, which keeps moving on until all the divisions of the column have wheeled. We have shown in fig. 18. how this is done on the right flank; while on the left we have shown an eghellon flank, which moves with more ease than the close column, and is not subject to so much mischief from the enemy's artillery; but this is not so deceptive; however, it affords the advantage of being ready either to form a flank, by wheeling backwards an octave, or to move forward into line; which cannot be done from a close column without deploying.

When a column is advancing towards an enemy, it is proper that its cannon should precede it, to clear the way by their fire; but when retreating, the cannon should be in the rear, to check pursuit. The passage of rivers is generally conducted on the same principle; adverting to one point where a choice can be made, viz. always to cross at a re-entering bend of the stream, as shown in fig. 19, by reference to which it will be seen, that in crossing from A to B, the passage cannot be flanked by the enemy; while it is defended by the troops which first cross: change the position, and cross

from B to A, and the enemy will flank the passage, which you cannot defend; because they will enfilade whatever troops or cannon you post for that purpose; they having the command of a greater extent of front than yourself in the latter instance.

One of the most arduous situations in which an officer can be placed is the covering, or conducting of a convoy; especially when heavy carriages are in question. A nuinerous convoy can rarely travel more than six or seven miles within the day, however favourable the roads may be; unless it may be practicable to draw two or three carriages abreast, which can be practicable on plains only; for whenever a pinch or defile might present itself so as to occasion only one carriage to proceed at a time, though only for a few feet, as in passing a narrow bridge, it would have the same effect as if the whole day's journey were performed in single trains: this is not the case in campaign situations, because one column of waggons may keep moving on while another is stopt; and, if a carriage should break down, others may pass round it: in this way the columns should not be far distant. When we consider that a hundreds waggons will cover a mile in length, we cannot but admire the frequent success of officers, perhaps with only four or five battalions under their command, in conducting convoys of many hundred of heavy carriages, through an exposed country, from one place to another; sometimes, indeed, for full an hundred miles. On such service it is highly necessary to have a body of cavalry; else every little party of the enemy's horse would subject the convoy to perpetual danger and delay.

When a general expects a convoy, he must favour its approach and safety by every possible means: one of the best devices is, that of threatening an attack, so as to prevent the enemy from detaching his cavalry. When the convoy is near, and it is suspected that an attempt will be made to cut it off by a sudden movement, the general must, if circumstances admit, make one retrograde march with his whole force to meet it; or, if that be not practicable, he may send orders for it to follow such route as may be most under cover, or best removed from the danger of assault. We often see instances of a campaign being decided by the safe arrival, or vice versa, by the loss of a convoy. The utmost skill sometimes cannot oppose the overbear

ing prowess of superior power; but, as we always suppose an army to place itself between its expected supplies and the enemy, it is evident, that, if of equal force, every advantage is on its side; for the enemy, having a greater distance to march, when about to attack a convoy, than the defenders have to proceed to its rescue, and any detached party being liable to destruction while passing round the flank, it is evident, that, by retaining the intermediate situation, we may generally afford every necessary protection. When it happens otherwise, we commonly find that the enemy are superior in cavalry, which they detach to a great <listance, to intercept the convoy, while their infantry remains in some strong position. In such case a retreat is indispensably necessary, and reliance must be placed in the commander of the convoy (if he is warned of the enemy's approach) being able either to take refuge under the walls of some fortified place; or on his taking possession of some village, or forming a barrier against the enemy, by drawing up his waggons, &c. to the best advantage in such case he is virtually entrenched; his cattle and troops being within an area impenetrable to cavalry, and furnishing an excellent cover for the keeping up a most destructive fire on the assailants. If he can command a supply of water, he may do wonders; at all events, he may easily hold out until relieved.

A retreat, well managed, is usually more favourable than a dear earned victory. To insure the means of retreating, without considerable loss, a second, or even a third line may be requisite: at all events, a reserve of select troops, with a good park of artillery, chiefly supplied with grape and case-shot, will be indispensable. The posting a reserve requires great judgment, both in regard to the enemy's designs, and the temper of your own trooops.

The celebrated retreat of Moreau, through the Black Forest, placed him, ipso facto, on a footing with the greatest conquerors of the day; it tore from his opponent's brows those laurels which the latter claimed, in consequence of having urged the French general to quit the open country. In that instance, however, it may, perhaps, be said, and not without some show of justice, that the nature of the country was greatly in favour of the latter; but, on the other hand, it must be taken into account, that, unless most skilfully managed, a retreat before a very

superior force must have been peculiarly dangerous, especially to the cavalry: we may, indeed, admire the system of tactics, which enabled Moreau to save his artillery and baggage. To do this, it is evident he must have shown a firm front, so arranged, that his opponent dared not to venture an attack. The excellence of the manœuvre consisted in the deceptions practised; for it was not until that movement, when Moreau had secured his baggage and artilery, and, as it were, buried his army among the wildernesses, that the Austrian general could believe it possible for the French to escape being captured. The device used was, a feint to escape along the skirts of the forest, which occasioned a change of position in the Austrian camp, and left Moreau at liberty to push in the opposite direction towards a pass, scarcely, indeed, passable for carriages, and thus to defy pursuit; however, it anawered his purpose, for he escaped with his whole

army.

We cannot close this article without showing how essentially a well chosen position contributes to success. Where an army is weak in cavalry, it should invariably be posted so, that at least one of its flanks may be covered from the enemy's horse. By this means, if its own cavalry be held in reserve, or nearly so, but with full powers to support the open wing, the enemy must be kept in suspense, as to the point to which it will direct its charge; and be compelled, in many instances, to keep his horse divided, for the purpose of opposing that charge on either flank. A flank may be securely covered by a town, duly defended by infantry; or by a river; a morass; a thick wood; a steep hill, having a battery duly posted; or even by broken ground In some instances, a slight intrenchment may be necessary.

TACTICS, naval, relate to those operations in the management of a vessel, which enable her to attain any particular object, such as reaching a port, avoiding danger, gaining an advantage over an enemy, &c. In a more extended sense, they denote those manoeuvres, stratagems, and deceptions, employed by the commander of a feet, for the purpose of gaining a weathergage, cutting off any part of a line, or attacking any particular portion thereof, in such manner as may either defeat the views of a hostile fleet, or subject it to loss and discomfiture. The old system of tactics in this, as well as in the military branch, was burthened

with ceremonies, and with received opinions, which were held to be inviolable: the difference of one or two ships in favour of the enemy was considered a sufficient excuse for a variety of precautions, generally amounting to forbearance from engaging the superior power; and although we certainly can count a number of gallant exploits performed by our fleets when somewhat inferior to the enemy, it has been reserved for latter times to exhibit what could be done by the British navy, even when opposed to nearly double their own force. This wonderful change was introduced by Rodney; who, in the year 1782, engaged the French fleet under Count de Grasse; when, by boldly cutting off a part of its rear, he compelled nearly half the enemy's force to surrender; the rest sought their safety in flight. Since that date, Admiral Jervis, by a skilful manœuvre, cut off a large portion of a Spanish fleet, near Cape St. Vincent's (whence the peerage bestowed on hin received its designation ;) but the late Lord Nelson appears most conspicuous in that mode of attack which, in general, secured a victory. The battle of the Nile was doubtless a masterpiece of tactical science: it merits notice from its simplicity, and, if we may be so bold as to use the term, its infallibility. The manœuvre he used was, to throw two of his ships upon every one of the weather-most of the enemy's line, by causing his fleet to divide as it approached them, consequently including each French ship between two of ours. The residue, which were moored in a line a-head, fully expected to see ours range up their whole length, and oppose ship to ship. They saw their error when it was too late; being to leeward, it was impossible for them to render efficient aid, and they fell in detail; with the exception of a very small portion, which escaped by putting out to sea, whither we were not in a condition to follow with any hopes of overtaking them. See fig. 20.

In the famous battle of Trafalgar, in which the immortal Nelson quitted his earthly frame, the combined fleets were drawn up in the form of a crescent, and awaited our attack, which was made in a double column, apparently bearing down upon their centre. This novel mode of coming into action kept the enemy completely in suspense: it threatened every part of their line. If our two columns had turned the same way, they would

VOL. XII.

have been able to do infinite damage in that quarter, before the other wing of the enemy could come up to succour their overpowered friends: if the two columns should cut through the centre, they must destroy it, and effectually seperate the two wings, so as to leave them ignorant of each other's fate. Such was the fact the enemy, though superior in numbers, lost no less than nineteen sail of the line. The reader may form some conception of that glorious event by a reference to fig. 21.

Perhaps nothing can place a fleet in a more dangerous state, and render it less able to resist an attack, than making sail before the wind, in a line of battle a-head to avoid a pursuing enemy. In such a case, whenever the rear of that line can be brought into action, it becomes subject to an accumulating force, in consequence of the pursuing fleet thickening upon it: while the van of its own line, being to leeward, must make many tacks, or at least two long ones, before it can succour its rear. The disadvantages must be very great, even if all the ships on both sides sail upon an exact equality: but, as that is never the case, many of the flying ships will be probably driven completely to leeward, and never be able to afford the smallest assistance. Yet British seamen, even when compelled to retire before a very superior force, generally manage, by some well contrived device, to intimidate their pursuers, or to put on so good a face as to convince them of the dear price at which the victory is to be bought. Of this we cannot quote a more appropriate instance than the escape of five sail of our ships, under the command of Admiral Cornwallis, from no less than nineteen sail of French ships of the line: an escape resulting entirely from the manœuvres of the British Admiral, whereby he fully convinced the French that a large force was at hand.

The present unparalleled state of discipline, throughout our navy, would, of itself, give us the command of the ocean: but we are greatly indebted at the same time to an excellent code of signals, both for the day and the night, whereby every operation and manœuvre may be directed with readiness and perspicuity. The day signals are, for the most part, made by flags, jacks, and pennants; the night signals by lanterns, blue lights, maroons, &c. in both, the firing of guns, either to windward or to leeward, occasionally is added. When fleets are large, or their duty extensive, especially in cruizing to

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intercept a convoy of merchant vessels, &c there are repeating frigates, which display the several signals made by the commander; so that they may be communicated to all the vessels; every signal being kept flying, until answered by all ships to which they may relate.

We shall now offer to our readers some minutia relative to the fighting of a ship, under ordinary circumstances; observing, that under the head of NAVIGATION much will be found to instruct the learner in ascertaining a vessel's course, way, &c.; and under the head of QUADRANT, what relates to the common mode of taking observations, for the purpose of ascertaining a vessel's locality.

When orders are given to "clear ship for action," the boatswain and his mates whistle, and call at the various hatchways, to warn all who are between decks. The hammocks, or beds, are instantly unhooked, packed, and sent on deck, to be put into the nettings on the waist, forecastle, quarters, poop, &c. where they serve as an excellent defence against musketry. While some of the seamen are thus employed between decks, others are aloft securing the yards in chain slings, so as to prevent them from falling when the haul-yards may be severed by cannon shot: materials for repairing the rigging are also placed in readiness; shot plugs, for stopping holes near or under the surface of the water, are dispensed; and every attention is paid to ascertain that the pumps are in order, so as to clear the hold in case of leaks. The decks are cleared of every incumbrance, by the removal of chests, &c, into the hold; the various gun-tackles are inspect ed; and all the necessary implements, such as powder-ladles, worms, rammers, sponges, &c. are duly supplied. All being ready, the surgeon and his mate, together with the chest of medicines, instruments, bandages, &c. are prepared in the cock-pit; that is, down the hatchway, below the ordinary reach of the enemy's shot. The officers and men repair to their posts, the powder-room is opened, the hatches are all laid, the marines drawn up on the fore-castle, quarter-deck and poop, the guns are run out and levelled, and the courses, (that is, the lower sails,) are clued up, to prevent their being set on fire by the discharges from the cannon; also to render the ship more manageable.

The greatest attention is always paid to taking a good aim before a gun is fired, that every shot may hit some part of

the enemy's hull; the nearer to the wa ter's edge the better. The captain, master, purser, &c. remain on deck to fight the ship, and to note down all occurrences, while the signal master attends to and answers whatever signals may be thrown out by the commander of the fleet or division. It is ever a primary object to place the ship in such a position as may annoy the enemy most; yet, at the same moment, evade his principal defences: this is best done, by laying diagonally upon her quarter or bow, and especially across her stern, so as to rake her fore and aft; whereby her guns will soon be dismounted, and the men driven from their quarters.

This description of the manner in which the battle is carried on by each ship will serve as an illustration of the whole: but

it may be necessary to add, that the disposition of a fleet must be suited to the position the adversary may have assumed. When an enemy opposes a direct line, opposite to that of his own fleet, the admiral rarely does more than make the signal for line of battle abreast, perhaps a cable's length asunder, thus coming at once to close engagement, ship opposed to ship, or rather the two fleets intermixed alternately, their heads laying different ways: if they should pass each other, it is usual to put about, aud resume the engagement in the same manner. When the enemy bear down in a line a-head, it is customary to receive them in the same manner, to prevent their cutting off a part of the line; this depends greatly on the direction of the wind; but if it be on the beam, that is, full on the side, or in any direction affording the means of aiding your van, without delay by a press of sail, such a mode of attack will sub. ject the enemy to have his own line cut, as was done by Rodney; or doubled upon, as in the battle of the Nile.

During an engagement, the courses are commonly hauled up, as before stated; the top-gallant sails and stay sails are also furled. The movement of each ship is chiefly regulated by the main and foretop sails, and the jib, reserving the mizen to fill, or to be thrown aback, as an aid, either to accelerate the ship, or as a check, to prevent her passing the enemy. The frigates, tenders, and other small vessels, generally lay to, or hover about in the rear, to repeat signals, or to aid crippled ships. These, not being considered as ships of the line, are not attacked, except by vessels of their own class; therefore, when a fleet is not well manned, it

is common to take all the spare hands from such, to assist on board the fighting ships. When a fleet is superior in numbers, it is proper to keep some of them in reserve, stationing them behind the weaker parts of the line, to succour such as may, by the loss of masts, &c. become unmanageable, and to take advantage of any opportunity to chase, and lay aboard of whatever of the enemy's ships may quit the line for the purpose of escaping. In order to observe what is going on, the admiral generally removes to some frigate, on board which he hoists his flag; near him should be some of the best sailing cutters, brigs, &c. to convey orders which could not be accurately delivered by signal, or by telegraph.

Boarding is most commonly resorted to by privateers, in their attacks upon merchant vessels; but among ships of the line is rarely practised. Our commanders are perhaps more forward than those of any other nation, except the Turks, in this kind of enterprize, which is replete with hazard. The best mode of boarding, especially if there be any swell, is to keep on the enemy's weather quarter; now and then, if the sailing of your ship will allow, yawning, so as to throw your fire into her stern: when, by this means, you have done any execution, it will be proper to pass close under the enemy's stern, raking her fore and aft, with your guns double shotted, and then lay her aboard upon her lee beam, having your tops well manned, to fire upon the enemy's decks, on which also grenades, stinkpots, fire-balls, &c. should be discharged. Having grappled the ship to your adversary's chains, your boarders jump into her, under the cover of the fire of your small arms. In case of repulse, the attack to leeward is most favourable to the retreat of your men; besides, it is far easier to cast off from the enemy than it would be if you were to windward of her.

TÆNIA, in natural history, tape-worm; body flat, and composed of numerous articulations: head with four orifices for suction, a little below the mouth: mouth terminal, continued by a short tube into two ventral canals, and generally crowned with a double series of retractile hooks or holders. Gmelin has enumerated almost one hundred species, besides varieties: he has divided them into sections. A. Those found in other parts besides the intestines, and furnished with a vesicle behind. B. Those found in the intestines only, and

without a terminal vesicle. C. Those with the head unarmed with hooks. The worms of the first section are found infesting Mammalia, reptiles, and fish. Those of the second section are found in the Mammalia, in birds, and in fish; and those of the third section infest Mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fish. This genus of worms are destined to feed on the juices of various animals, and are usually found in the alimentary canal, generally at the upper part of it. They are sometimes found in great numbers, and occasion the most distressing disorders. They have the power of reproducing parts which have been broken off, and are therefore removed with the utmost difficulty: they are oviparous, and discharge their eggs from the apertures on the joints. We shall give a few of the more remarkable species.

1. T. visceralis, which is enclosed in a vesicle, broad in the fore part, and pointed in the hinder part; inhabits the liver, the placenta uterina, and the sac which contains the superfluous fluid of dropsical persons. 2. T. cellulosa, which is inclosed in a cartilaginous vesicle, inhabiting the cellular substance of the muscles; is about an inch long, half an inch broad, and one fourth of an inch thick, and is very tenacious of life. 3. T. dentata, has a pointed head; the large joints are streaked transversely, and the small joints are all dilated; the osculum or opening in the middle of both margins is somewhat raised. It is narrow, ten or twelve feet long, and broad in the fore parts: its ovaria are not visible to the naked eye: and the head underneath resembles a heart in shape. It inhabits the intestines. 4. T. lata, is white, with joints very short, and knotty in the middle; the osculum is solitary. It is from eighteen to one hundred and twenty feet long; its joints are streaked transversely; its ovaria are disposed like the petals of a rose. 5. T. vulgaris, has two lateral mouths in each joint; it attaches itself so firmly to the intestines that it can scarcely be removed by the most violent medicines; it is slender, and has the appearance of being membranaceous; it is somewhat pellucid, from ten to sixteen feet long, and about four lines and a half broad at one end. 6. T. trutta, which chiefly inhabits the liver of the trout. 7. T. solium has a marginal mouth, one on each joint. 8. T. ovilla, found in the liver and omentum of sheep. 9. T. celebralis, is aggregate; numerous animalcules united by their base to a large common vesi

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