It appears to him that the old habit of self-devotion to high purposes is dying out, and that it is his task to re-awaken it. He will ride in quest of adventures. He will deliver distressed ladies, chastise and humble tyrants, break up wicked enchantments, slay dragons, and griffins, and other terrors of the earth. He will be the champion of Christendom against the Moslem and the infidel. Let it be observed that there is a noble as well as a ludicrous side to this conception of the mad knightfor crazed he assuredly is. The thoughtful reader will even find a touch of pathos in the strange, distraught, fantastic figure-the pathos of an unfulfilled ideal, of illusions shattered. The aims of Quixote are high and magnanimous, but his mind is out of joint with facts. time, some iron-rust, which is the oxide of that metal, we shall never be able to drive off the oxygen and leave the pure iron behind; but if we heat the oxides of gold, silver, platinum, or mercury, the heat will be sufficient to overcome the affinity which unites the gas and the metal-the former will escape and the latter remain. We do not advise the student to attempt to collect oxygen by this means, for more heat is required than is given by a spirit-lamp; but the experiment may be successfully Sancho Panza is a character admirably contrasted with that of the Don, whom he serves as a squire. His gross, sensual, A prosaic nature is the exact opposite of the dreamy, imaginative, self-sacrificing disposition of his master. Faithful he is, with touches of homely affection; yet his great idea is to benefit himself, and to get something substantial for his pains. In the matter of the governorship of Barataria, he is as much befooled as Quixote himself; but the motive is sordid. Usually, however, he sees through the delusions of the knight, and corrects them with shrewdness and native sense. He has at his command an exhaustless stock of proverbs, embodying in the briefest compass the mother-wit of Spanish peasants; and altogether he is one of the most amusing fellows in fiction. The other characters in the book are less strongly marked, but show the hand of the master. The first portion of this wonderful work was published in 1605; the second in 1615. It has been said that the earlier part was written when the author was in prison for debt; but the tradition is very doubtful. The life of Cervantes, however, was chequered; his fame alone stands high above the accidents of the world. S W Fig. 15. shown, as in Fig. 14. With the red oxide of mercury (HgO) in the test-tube put a piece of charcoal; the oxide will give off the oxygen, the charcoal will burn brightly, and globules of mercury will be found at the bottom of the tube. Fig. 15 shows convenient forms of clips for holding test-tubes; A can be made by the student; s is an india-rubber strap; w, a piece of wood which serves the purpose of a hinge. 2. The more general way is by heating in a Florence flask potassium chlorate (KC1O,). By adding one-third its weight of the black oxide of manganese (MnO,), the gas will come off at a lower temperature; the manganese itself undergoes no change, but acts by its presence: this phenomenon is called catalysis. The red oxide of iron (Fe,O,), the black oxide of copper (CuŎ), or even sand, has the same effect, though not in so eminent a degree. The apparatus is arranged as in Fig. 16. The stand is convenient, but superfluous, as the flask may be held by a clipper, or a piece of paper, as the test-tube in Fig. 14. Instead of making Fig. 16. bends in the glass tubing, it is as well to have a short piece of small india-rubber tubing to join the tube from the cork and the delivery-tube, thus forming a flexible bend. A bowl is filled with water, and the jar into which the gas is to be received is laid down in it; when in this position it must be covered completely by the water, and there must be left in it no air-bubbles. Now raise it up, mouth downwards, but not out of the water, so that the jar will be full of water so long as its mouth is below the surface. Should there not be a bowl at hand deep enough to allow the jar to be completely covered when lying down, a shallow dish may be used. In this case the jar must be filled with water until it runs over the brim; then place over the mouth a piece of glass cut circular-a flat piece of tin or sheet-brass will do as well; place one hand upon this to prevent it falling off, and with the other hand lift the jar and invert it into the dish. In Fig. 17 it will be seen that the jar stands on two pieces of slate, parted with about half an inch between them, thus allowing room for the delivery tube to pass beneath. When a jar is full of the gas, pass a small plate beneath its mouth, and lift it out of the water; it will stand in the plate as long as required, if the hollow of the plate be left full of water. Another jar should be standing in the dish ready to be filled; and as with one hand the full one is removed, with the other the second one should be placed Fig. 17. to receive the gas. The chemical action is expressed and explained in this equation KCIO,= KCl + 0,; that is, potassium chlorate, when heated, becomes potassium chloride and oxygen. where it is diluted with nitrogen. This the following experiments will show : 1. Twist a wire round a piece of charcoal (Fig. 19). Take one of the jars of gas standing on the plate, and replace it in the dish of water; remove the plate, and in its place put the circular piece of glass; lift it from the water and stand it on the table, mouth upwards; hold who mig the charcoal in the flame of the lamp until some parts of it are red; with one hand slide the glass off the mouth of the jar sufficiently to admit of the entrance of the Fig. 19. charcoal, and the charcoal will burn brilliantly in forming with the oxygen carbonic acid gas (CO). Do not place the flask on a cold substance while it is hot, but when cold fill it with water; after a few shakes pour it into a 2. Place in the "deflagrating spoon "-which is a small metal tall jar, and add more water. The potassium chloride is very cup soldered to a piece of wire (Fig. 20)-some sulphur; light it soluble, and the unaltered MnO, goes to the bottom; let it-it burns with a pale blue flame; introduce it into a jar of stand all night, then pour off the "supernatant liquid;" fill the oxygen-it burns brightly into SO, (sulphurous acid), which jar again with water, and again let the MnO, subside; pour off causes the well-known suffocating smell. the clear water, which contains the last traces of the KCl, and throw the MnO, upon a filter, and afterwards dry it; it is then fit again for use. This will give the student some practice in manipulation, but practi- K,0,2CrO, +4(H,SO.) = K,,SO, + Cr,,3SO, + 4H,0 + 30. The compound under the line is chrome alum. Combustion is simply chemical combination, and when this combination is violent, sufficient heat is developed to produce fire. The affinities of oxygen are remarkably strong, and it is capable of entering into combination with every body in nature except Fluorine; therefore fire is generally oxygen entering into combination with the body burning; though we shall find instances of this phenomenon in which oxygen takes no part. In the fires of our houses the oxygen of the air is combining with the coal, which is carbon, to form an invisible gas, carbonic acid gas (CO,), which passes up the chimney. Hence we say that oxygen is the great supporter of combustion. Of course combustion will be more violent in the pure gas than in the air, 3. Repeat this experiment with phosphorus. The student is advised to use the red amorphous phosphorus, which is not so inflammable as the stick phosphorus. An intensely brilliant light is emitted during the formation of the white fumes, which are phosphoric acid (P,Os). 4. The following experiment is very illustra tive of the fact that burning is chemical combination. Take a piece of fine iron wire-such as that of which "ribbon-wire" is made; coil it into a spiral, round a pencil; stick the end of it into as small a piece of cork as you can; dip this into any inflammable liquid, such as naphtha; pass the other end through a hole in a disc of tin; light the cork, place it in a jar of oxygen, as in Fig. 21, and the wire will burn with beautiful scintillations into Fe,O,, which is the same oxide of iron as the lodestone. It is better to fit a piece of cardboard in the bottom of the jar, and leave about an inch of water in it: for the fused oxide is so hot that if it touch the glass the jar will crack. Fig. 20. From the above modes of preparing oxygen we may take examples of one method of finding what weight of the substance is required to give a certain quantity of another. Take the equation KCIO, = KCl + 0,; the atomic weights of these elements are 391+355 + 4839-1 +355 + 48 That is, from every 122-6 parts by weight of potassium chlorate, 3MnO, Mn,0,+20. that is, from 261 parts of manganese of the weight of the MnO2. But the Fig. 21. The relation between Ozone is the allotropic form of oxygen; that is, it seems to be oxygen in "another form," probably condensed, and therefore more active. It is produced by the slow oxidation of phosphorus. If a piece of this substance be placed at the bottom of a jar in which is a little water, the oxygen of the air in the jar partly becomes ozone. This body is also formed when electric sparks pass between two points. The sulphurous smell in the neighbourhood of a strong electric machine, or of a flash of lightning, is the peculiar smell of ozone. Ozone is a very powerful oxidising agent. It can even separate the iodine from the compound potassium iodide-forming potash and liberating the iodine. This fact has been used as a test for ozone. Iodine makes a blue compound with starch, so that if a piece of paper be dipped in a mixture of starch paste and potassium iodide, if any ozone be present the paper becomes blue. This test alone, however, is not decisive, for nitric acid, which is sometimes found in the air, will do the same thing. It has been said that the health of a district depends upon the quantity of ozone in the atmospherebut this fact is not satisfactorily established. Since it is a great oxidiser it is a powerful bleacher, for by oxidising the colouring matter it destroys it. It is hoped to apply it to the bleaching of sugar, which has hitherto been effected by charred blood. A powerful magneto-electric machine has lately been sent out to the West Indies to produce ozone, wherewith to bleach sugar. Ozone was discovered by Professor Schönbein, of Basle, to whose genius we also owe gun-cotton. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-XVIII. WORDS have been curiously formed by abbreviation; the word the rabble. But as the rabble are mobile vulgus, a fickle crew, so were they called mobile vulgus, and by contraction, mob. Still mob and rabble are not identical. Rabble is the general term, the class, and mob is a collection of persons belonging to that class. Palsy is a contracted form of the now more fashionable paralysis. Between alms and eleemosynary there would seem to be no connection; both, however, come from the same Greek term, and the former is only a shortened form of the root from which the latter is derived. Well do we remember kickshaws, a term of our youthful days, used to signify something contemptible. Little did we then suspect that it was only the English way of pronouncing the French quelque chose; i.e., something, contemptuously travestied to mimic and ridicule French prisoners in England. Kin, from the Anglo-Saxon cyn, kin, offspring, son, signifies the son of; as in Wilkin (Wilkins); seen in another formnamely, Wilson. Kin, from its signification, has also a diminutive force; as in lambkin (a lamb's child), or little lamb. What is little is dear, hence diminutives are terms of endearment. But what is little may be despised. Sometimes, therefore, diminutives imply contempt; as in manikin. "This is a dear manikin to you, Sir Toby."- Shakespeare. Le (see el), among the suffixes already given. Les, from the Anglo-Saxon læs (German, los, destitute of), has not a comparative but a negative force; as, an læs twentig, one less twenty, or, as we should say, twenty minus one. Hence it appears that the idea of less is privation or negation. Consequently less, the comparative of little, is altogether a different word. And thus we are also led to understand the true force of less when employed as a suffix; as, motionless, or without motion; deathless, free from death. Two negatives thus make a positive: death, the privation of life, and less, the negation of death, combine to declare the idea of ever-enduring existence, the most positive, the most real, the most permanent of all conceivable things, the very essence of Deity; life itself. Let, according to Latham, "seems to be double, and to consist of the Gothic diminutive l, and the French diminutive t." It is found in streamlet, tartlet, hamlet (Anglo-Saxon, ham, home; as in hamstede, homestead). A tall, worthy stryplyng.”—Skelton. The last line shows that nothing contemptuous belonged to the word in the olden time. Consult the ensuing :"Now a stripling cherub he appears, Not of the prime, yet such as in his face Youth smiled celestial."-Milton, "Paradise Lost." Ly, a termination of Saxon origin, having the force of our like, and so forming an adjective or an adverb; as childlike, childly, in German kindlich; manlike, manly, manlich. When ly is added to a noun, it forms an adjective, as love, lovely; when it is added to an adjective, it forms an adverb, as wise, wisely. Such a formation as "holily" (1 Thess. ii. 10) is to be avoided for the sake of euphony. Ment, from the Latin mentum (as in ornamentum, an ornament; adjumentum, an assistance), through the French ment (as in the French mandement, or Latin mandatum, a command), is a suffix which denotes the result of the act indicated in the verb from which the noun is derived: thus, velo means I veil or cover; and velamen or velamentum is a veil or covering; so aliment (from the Latin alo, I nourish) is a means of nourishing, nourishment. Hence, devotement properly indicates not the act, but the result; not the doing, but the state of feeling which ensues from the doing, the devotion. In practice, however, the usage seems reversed. "Her (Iphigenia) devotement was the demand of Apollo."-Hurd. " 'Oh, how loud It calls devotion genuine growth of night! "Devotion! daughter of Astronomy! An undevout astronomer is mad." Young, "The Complaint." Mony, as in alimony, sanctimony, a Latin termination (as in parsimonia, sparingness; and matrimonium, the condition of a mother, matrimony, not in great use) which denotes a conse quence, as in testimony, the result of the act of testis, a witness. Ness, as found in littleness, nothingness, is a Saxon suffix, signifying the abstract quality. If we compare littleness with the French petitesse (Old English nesse), and take in other words, as tendresse, tenderness, we are led to conjecture that the n is only a connecting consonant, and that ess or esse in both French and English are the same. Consider also the Anglo-Saxon sarenes, soreness, that is sorrow; gelicness, likeness; heardnes, hardness; micelness, muchness, that is greatness; and you find the same form in the root of our language. If, how ever, the n is not an essential part of the word, then the mess or rather ess has no connection with ness in such words as Dungeness, Sheerness, and other proper names, names of places. In these the ness comes from the German nase, and the AngloSaxon nese, and signifies nose; that is, a headland or promontory. "About six of the clock at night the wind vered to the south-west; and we weighed anker, and bare cleere of the ness, and then set our course north-east and by north until midnight, being then clear of the Yarmouth sands."-Hakluyt. Ock, as in hillock, a diminutive; so that hillock is a little hill. So bullock originally meant a young bull or calf; compare Isaiah xi. 6 with Jer. xxxi. 18, where calf and bullock are the renderings of the same Hebrew term. In the suffix ock the e sound is the essential element, the k being merely an affair of spelling, and the o (probably) a connecting vowel. Thus regarded, we find the origin of our diminutive c in the Latin diminutive c, as seen in recula (res, a thing), specula (spes, hope), nubecula (nubes, a cloud), vulpecula (vulpes, a fox), etc. Another form of bullock is bulchin, obviously bull's-kin, that is, bull's child, as in the Hebrew, "steer, the son of a bull," for a bullock or calf (Exod. xxix. 1; Lev. iv. 3). "And better yet than this, a bulchin, two years old. A curled pate calf it is, and oft could have been sold." Ling, of Saxon origin, denotes descent, and hence offspring; Drayton, Polyolbion." also that which is little, and that which is beloved; e.g., darling Oon, or on, an augmentive; as in balloon, or great ball. The (dear child), gosling (little goose), nestling. Hireling is properly termination con, or on, comes to us from the Italian, but is ori a child of hire, a person whose services are obtained by hire.ginally from the Latin; as seen in naso, a man with a large nose ; capito, a man with a large head. Like balloon is saloon, in the French salon, a place of reception (French, saluer, to salute, greet; Latin, salvus, safe). Or, a termination borrowed from the Latin or; as seen in auctor, in English, author. The correspondent Saxon ending is er, which has already been spoken of. Or denotes the agent. Or, in former times, was written cur. Author properly signifies originator; the first who does anything. LESSONS IN DRAWING.-XVIII. TREATMENT OF REFLECTIONS IN WATER. IT is not the rule that because we can see the objects we must consequently see the reflections; and, on the other hand, it is very common to see the reflection of an object, or of light, when the eye does not see the object itself, something intervening between the eye and the object, but not between the eye and the reflection. The leading principle, upon which is founded all "The author of that which causeth anything to be, is author of that other data connected with our subject, is that the reflections of thing also which thereby is caused."-Hooker. "From his loins New authors of dissension spring."-Philips. Ory, a Latin suffix, seen in promontorium, a promontory (pro, forward, and mons, a mountain); and auditory, from auditorium (audire, to hear). Ose, from the Latin osus, as morosus (ill-tempered), morose. The osus in Latin is sometimes uosus; as, monstruosus, monstrous. We have the ending in imperious, imperiosus; religious, religiosus; invidious, invidiosus; suspicious, suspiciosus. The osus is Englishised also by our termination y; as, ventosus, windy; lapidosus, stony. Ote, of Latin origin, found in verbs formed from the Latin participle in otus; as, to promote, from promotus (moved forward); to devote (Latin, devotus, consecrated-votum, a vowsomething sacred or set apart for the gods). "Such on Isis' temple you may find, On votive tablets to the life pourtrayed."-Dryden. Ric, as in bishopric, in Anglo-Saxon denotes power, dominion, territory; as, to-became thin rice, i.e., thy kingdom come. Bishop ric, then, is the jurisdiction of a bishop. Ship, as in hardship, has no connection with ship, a vessel, but comes from the Anglo-Saxon scipe, denoting a state, an office, a dignity; as, freond-scipe, friendship, the state of being a friend; in German, freundshaft; the shaft represents the older form of the word, which was sceoft. Here is seen the origin of worship; that is, weorth-ship, literally, worthiness. "My train are men of choice and rarest parts, And in the most exact regard support all objects and their parts are always perpendicularly beneath the objects and the parts themselves respectively. Fig. 112, a simple subject of posts, etc., will explain this. The top of the post a is perpendicularly over the reflection b, and so with the rest; but it must be borne in mind that the proportion to be drawn of the reflection of an object is regulated by or according to the position of the object, and also with regard to the point from which we view it. If we view the posts (Fig. 112) as they are drawn, perpendicularly and parallel with the picture plane —that is, the upper parts neither advancing towards the eye nor receding from it, but exactly over the position of the lower parts-then the reflections will be the same in length, with the slight exception resulting from the perspective of distance. We will endeavour to make this clear by the help of a few problems. In order fully to understand these problems, we recommend the pupil to work them out, and as the principles of construction are the same throughout, we advise him to repeat them with a few of the conditions varied-for instance, greater or less inclinations of the slopes, and greater or less first subject will be to draw the reflection of a wall (Fig. 113). elevations of those objects which are most in advance. Our Let A be the end section of a wall situated on the margin of a river. It is required to show its reflection, B, below the water's edge, CD; s1 being the position of the eye on the horizontal line. Draw a line, s1 s2, perpendicularly as much below the base CD as it is above it, making s2 E equal to s1 E. From the upper part of the wall F draw a line to s2, and where this line cuts the base C D in H will give the point through which a line is to be drawn from s1 to meet a perpendicular line from F, which will give the depth of the reflection required. Now in order to The worship of their names."-Shakespeare, "King Lear." apply the above rule in showing the face of the wall and its Hence "worship" is a title of honour. "Dinner is on table; my father desires your worship's company." Shakespeare," Merry Wives of Windsor." Derivatively, "worship" signifies adoration. "Under the name of church, I understand a body or collection of human persons, professing faith in Christ, gathered together in several places of the world for the worship of the same God, and united into the same corporation."-Pearson. Sum, from the Anglo-Saxon sum, an adjective of the same meaning as our adjective some, is employed in both Anglo-Saxon and in English as a suffix; as, winsum, winsome, that is, winning. We find the termination in our present lonesome, handsome, tiresome, etc. The spelling of some in the Anglo-Saxon-namely, sum-shows the origin of our pronunciation of the word. Sound etymology would throw great light on pronunciation. Ster, str, a suffix of Anglo-Saxon origin, denoting the feminine gender, as spinster, a female spinner. We may exhibit the real meaning of nouns ending in ster, found in the Anglo-Saxon, thus MASCULINE. Sangere, a singer; Bacere, a baker; Fidelere, a fiddler; Vebber, a weaver ; Seamere, a seamer (sewer); FEMININE. Sangestre, a songster. Bacestre (Baxter), a female baker. Vebbestre (Webster), a female weaver. In our present termination of these feminines—namely, stress, as seen in songstress-the ess or ss seems derived by attraction from the classical termination ess from ix. Originally, songstress was songestre, but by the prevalence of such forms as shepherdess, songestre was gradually drawn into songstress; and thus came to have a double suffix, both feminine; that is, str of the Saxon, and ess of the Latin. Not inappropriately may the English language be called a medley. "Through the soft silence of the listening night, reflection, we must proceed as follows:-In Fig. 113 draw at pleasure the line a c d b, and repeat this line, with its respective divisions, in Fig. 114; through the several points a cd b draw horizontal lines at right angles with ab; make A B equal to the length of the given wall, and draw the rectangle A G HB; The ABFE will represent the wall, EFHG the reflection. pupil must be reminded that the line ac db in Fig. 113 is the picture plane or medium through which we see the wall, and upon which it is supposed to be traced (see Vol. I., page 72, Def. 3, "Station Point"). We have previously observed that in consequence of the position of the eye being above the reflection, and on a level with some portion of the object, it will repeatedly occur that the reflections of many parts of the solid cannot be seen, although the parts themselves are in sight, and form, perhaps, the most important portions of the object. Let us illustrate this by Fig. 115, which is a mass of masonry, section G, proceed as in the last case, being careful to draw lines, having two slopes, A and B. Having drawn the profile or or visual rays, from every angle to s1, and also to s2. these rays cut each other respectively in w, t, g, lines from s1 will determine the lengths of the reflection. We must apply this to a front view, as in the former case. Draw the perpendicular line E E' (the picture plane), and mark the points where the visual rays cut the picture plane in a, b, c, etc. Repeat this line in Fig. 116, and copy from Fig. 115 the distances of the divisions upon it, and proceed with the horizontal lines from these distances as in the last problem. Upon the line marked g, which represents the water's edge, make FG equal to the given length of the wall; d being the horizontal line, and the observer being supposed to stand opposite the centre of the wall, the point of sight will be at Ps. Now the lines F PS and GPS are horizontal lines in perspective-that is, the perspective of the base Where H (Fig. 115): therefore, where the visual rays from the points in the base cut the picture plane in ƒ (three lines close together) will give the points, k, l, m, whence the perpendiculars of the wall must be drawn, the lower slope Fn must be drawn between the lines e, g (see Fig. 115), and the perpendicular The subject is a cottage on a bank with a large notice-board in front of it. The profile view (Fig. 117) will explain the distance of the board from the cottage, and this will account for the great difference between the details of the projection A and the reflection B in Fig. 118. If the pupil fail not to work out this problem also (of which, being constructed by the same rules as the former, we give no detailed PP explanation, but prefer leaving it as it is, for an exercise), he will more readily understand it, and the method of construction also; remembering that the visual rays drawn from every important point of the whole passing through P P (the picture plane) determine the points to be transferred to the corresponding plane on the left in Fig. 118. We remark that the notice board covers part of the roof in the projection A, whilst it is clear of the roof in the reflection B. Also compare the chimneys in both cases with respect to their apparent position with the board. In the reflection в the sills of the windows are on a line with the base of the post, and the thresholds of the doors cannot be seen because they are hidden by the bank. There are other differences. which the pupil will be able to discover for himself. The same may be satisfactorily proved with regard to clouds. It is common, also, in their cases to see brilliant reflections of light clouds on the water, when to the eye there is nothing to account for them. These reflections are invariably caused by light clouds which are hidden from view behind other clouds, w the only evidence of their existence. Why is this? And where is the root of the mistake that is so frequent ly made, that, without exception, whatever we paint above the water must be necessarily repeated by its reflection? It is simply this, that many treat the whole view, sky and all included, as one single plane, never thinking there are parts more proportion as the water is more or less impregnated with colouring matter, say clay, or as rivers generally appear after heavy rains. Then as the strength of the reflections and shadows alternate in proportion to the clearness or opacity of the water. When it is very thick and muddy, the shadows of objects are cast as forcibly coupon the surface as they are on a road; and as it becomes clearer, the reflections become more bril liant and the shadows weaker: the earthy par ticles mingled with the water receive the shadow, not the water itself. In perfectly clear water the light passes through the water itself, as through a piece of glass, lighting up the bed of the river, so that we are able to distinguish readily the stones, weeds, fish, and whatever else may be at the bottom; then the shadow which falls upon the water sinks as it were, and is seen at the bottom only. |