XXXII. CHAP. declarations were made with the entire concurrence of the allied Powers, who were, one and all, anxious to avert hostilities, the issue of which no man could foresee, and which might end in involving the world in conflagration. 1839. 47. ment of hos June 15, 1839. Although, however, these decisive steps on the part Commence of the great maritime powers postponed, they did not tilities by avert the dreaded rupture. The impatience of Sultan the Sultan. Mahmoud for the punishment of his rebellious vassal was so great, and increased to such a degree with his advancing infirmities and irritability of temper, that in the spring of the following year it broke through all bounds. A great degree of activity was observed for some months previously in all his forces by sea and land, and in the middle of June the Turkish fleet issued from the Dardanelles and made sail for the coast of Egypt. At the same time the Sultan addressed a note to the ambassadors of Austria and Russia, in which he declared "that he preferred any event to the present uncertain state of things; that he could no longer tolerate the insolence of his rebellious vassal, who, trampling under foot the principles of Islamism, had not scrupled to expel by force the guards placed by his sovereign at the tomb of the Prophet; refused of his own authority the passage of Suez to Great Britain, a power in alliance with the Porte; done everything he could to prevent the English getting possession of Aden in the Red Sea; and excited rebellion in the provinces of Bassorah and Bagdad, forming part of the Turkish Empire." At the same time an envoy was sent to Alexandria, who summoned the Pacha, in the name of the Divan, to "re-establish the Turkish guards at the tomb of the Prophet, to pay regularly his tribute to the Sultan, and to renounce formally all rights tromperait gravement s'il supposait que des rivalités entre les Puissances Européenes les empêcheraient de prêter au Sultan tout le secours qui, dans de pareilles conjonctures, serait nécessaire pour soutenir ses droits légitimes. PALMERSTON." -LORD PALMERSTON au COLONEL CAMPBELL, Consul Brittanique à Alexandrie, July 7, 1838; CAPEFIGUE, Europe depuis 1830, x. 441. XXXII. 1839. of sovereignty over Egypt, except in so far as it might be CHAP. formally conceded to him." These were the demands put forth in the East; but the views of the West dived a great deal farther into the depths of futurity, and the attention of the British Cabinet was with justice mainly fixed on preventing hostilities in order to take away from 1 Ann. Hist. the Russians all pretext for a second visit to Constan- xxii. 337, tinople, and drawing yet closer the fatal provisions of x. 73, 75. the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi.1* 338; Cap. both sides mencement ties. Nothing, however-not even the threatened hostility of 48. France and England-could arrest Sultan Mahmoud in Forces on his frantic career. Orders were sent from Constantinople at the comto commence hostilities immediately by sea and land. of hostiliBir, on the Euphrates, was fortified as a point of retreat June 17. in case of disaster, and the Turkish troops, crossing that river, took possession of several villages occupied by the Arabs in the district of Am-Tib. Mehemet Ali, whose conduct was as prudent as that of the Sultan was impetuous, gave orders to his son Ibrahim to fall back without fighting, and the same to his admirals in regard to the Ottoman fleet. The forces of the Porte, so far as numbers went, were immense, and far exceeded those of the Pacha. The Turkish general had seventeen regular regiments of infantry, nine of cavalry, and one hundred guns, 6 * The views of Lord Palmerston and the English Cabinet at this juncture were thus expressed to the French chargé-d'affaires at London, 17th June 1839" Lord Palmerston m'a dit, Vous avez eu jusqu'ici mon propre sentiment sur la Question de l'Orient, je vais vous donner aujourd'hui l'opinion arrêtée du Conseil.' Et il examina toutes les parties du sujet, proposant de forcer le Sultan et le Pacha de déposer de ne point laisser entrer les Russes à Constantinople. Le Conseil a examiné ensuite le cas où, devancés par les évènemens au-delà des bornes d'une provision raisonnable, nous trouverions les Russes établis à Constantinople, ou en marche vers la capitale de l'Empire Ottoman. Cette immense question a été discutée sous la profonde impression qu'a causée cette phrase d'une dépêche de votre Excellence, 'Je crains qu'on n'ait pris à Londres bien facilement son parti d'une seconde expédition Russe à Constantinople.' Le Conseil a pensé que, dans ce cas, nos escadres devraient paraître devant Constantinople en amies, si le Sultan acceptait nos secours, en ennemies, s'il les refusait. On a même discuté militairement la question du passage des Dardanelles."-M. DE BOURQUENEY, Chargé d'Affaires à Londres, au MARECHAL SOULT, June 17, 1839; CAPEFIGUE, X. 75. XXXII. CHAP. besides a swarm of irregulars, which brought up his forces to 80,000 combatants. Ibrahim had under his orders 1839. only fourteen regiments of infantry, eight of cavalry, eight of artillery, and fifteen hundred irregulars, in all 46,000 men; but they were incomparably better equipped and disciplined, and their chief possessed military talents of a very high order. More than this, he had largely distributed bribes among the Turkish officers; and in consequence of this, joined to the old leaven of discontent which pervaded the Ottoman Empire in consequence of the destruction of the Janizaries, a large part of the troops were prepared to pass over to the enemy. The result was soon rendered painfully apparent.1 J Ann. Hist. xxii. 339, 341; Cap. x. 76, 77. 49. Battle of Nezib. June 24. Hafiz Pacha, the Turkish generalissimo, occupied a strong position: his right rested on an inaccessible mountain, his left on the river NEZIB, and his whole front was strengthened by fieldworks armed with heavy guns, whose fire swept every possible approach to the position. Ibrahim advanced to the attack with much inferior forces, though in good order, but they were visibly shaken by the fire of the Turkish artillery, which was greatly superior to his own. But at this very moment, when victory seemed to be declaring for the Turks, treachery did its work-whole battalions and squadrons went over to the enemy; and the remainder, seeing themselves deserted, and huge gaps formed in their line, into which the enemy began to pour without opposition, took to flight, abandoning their guns, caissons, baggage, and everything they had. It was no longer a battle, but a rout. In less than two hours the whole Turkish army had disappeared, leaving behind them their whole artillery, twenty thousand muskets, nine thousand prisoners, their 2 Cap. x. 89; Ann. Hist. tents, baggage, and even Hafiz Pacha's insignia of command set in diamonds, recently sent him by the Grand Seignior! 2 xxii. 339, 340. This decisive victory was not the only triumph which awaited the audacious and fortunate Pacha of Egypt. * XXXII. 1839. 50. fleet is trea not cherously given up to the the Egyp tians. Hardly had the news of his signal triumph reached CHAP. Alexandria when the Turkish fleet entered the harbour, having treacherously delivered itself up to the Egyptian force which it had been sent from Constantinople to The Turkish combat! This shameful defection took place, if with the concurrence, at least under the eyes of French admiral, M. Lalande, who made no attempt to July 14. prevent it. The consuls of the four Powers made. + strenuous efforts to get the fleet restored to the Turks, but in vain. Mehemet Ali would not consent to do so except on the concession of all his demands, which the consuls were not empowered to grant. In effect, his position was extraordinary, and might well inspire confidence. 1 Cap. x. 90, The Turkish army was annihilated, and the fleet was 91; Ann. sailing about before Alexandria united to the Egyptian, 340, 341. and obeying the orders of Mehemet Ali!1 Hist. xxii. 51. Sultan and his The fierce and relentless chief who had been the cause of these disasters falling upon his country was spared the Death of pain of witnessing them. Sultan Mahmoud, whose health Mahmoud, had for some time been declining, expired on the 30th character. June, in his fifty-fifth year, and was succeeded by his June 30. son Abdul-Medjid, then a youth of sixteen, who was girded as a token of sovereignty, according to the custom of the Ottomans, with the sword of Othman. The deceased Sultan was a man of remarkable talents, great energy, indomitable courage, and animated by a sincere desire to promote the good of his people: but nevertheless he contributed more than any other sovereign of his race to their "La Flotte Turque est venue le 14 sous le commandement du Capitaine Pacha, se mettre à la disposition de Méhémet Ali. Le Viceroi a dit qu'il ne la rendrait à la Porte, que lorsque le Grand Vizier Khosrow-Pacha serait éloigné des affaires, et qu'on lui aurait accordé l'hérédité des pays qu'il gouverne. L'armée Egyptienne a reçu l'ordre de se retirer derrière l'Euphrate." -Le Consul de France à M. le Président du Conseil, Alexandrie, July 16, 1839; CAPEFIGUE, X. 99. "Et tout cela se faisait sous les yeux de l'Amiral Français, M. Lalande, déjà un peu en opposition avec l'ambassadeur Baron Roussin, qui loyalement voulait soutenir les interêts de la Porte Ottomane, et surtout ce principe, Que la trahison d'une troupe sous le drapeau, est un fatal exemple pour tous les gouvernemens."-CAPEFIGUE, X. 90. XXXII. 1839. CHAP. ruin! The decline of Turkey was never so marked, the progress of ruin never so rapid, as in the hands of this ruthless reformer. The reason was that he strove to implant among them institutions at variance with their spirit. He endeavoured to make Europeans of the Turks, and the empire of the Osmanlis crumbled in the attempt. By the destruction of the Janizaries, accomplished with such awful severity, he removed indeed one fruitful source of disorder and insubordination, but he did so only by destroying the military strength of the empire. When they were alienated or ruined, the weakness of a State which depends entirely on the support of one limited class in society became at once apparent. In 1808, Turkey had maintained an equal contest with Russia, and after four years of sanguinary warfare, both these inveterate antagonists were still on the banks of the Danube; but four years after the destruction of the Janizaries in 1826, the Muscovite standards were at Adrianople. Disasters unheard of in its long and checkered annals afterwards accumulated round the falling empire and sinking throne" of Sultan Mahmoud defeated by his rebellious vassal, he was rescued from destruction only by the officious interposition of his inveterate enemy, and death only saved him from witnessing the utter prostration of his empire by the treachery of its defenders by land and sea! So hopeless is the attempt to ingraft European institutions upon Asiatic customs-so vain the endeavour to exchange Eastern stability for Western progress and so true the observation of Montesquieu, that no nation ever rose to lasting greatness but by institutions in harmony with its spirit. 66 The removal from the scene, however, of the iron will and imperious disposition of Sultan Mahmoud, removed one great obstacle to the pacification of the East. The Divan yielded, as the Eastern nations always do, to necessity they seldom negotiate at a disadvantage till the |