This rapid sketch of the uses of capital will not be complete without its moral. The paramount value of capital to the prosperity of a nation should never be overlooked by a government. Uuwise laws, restrictions upon commerce, improvident taxation, which are unfavourable to its growth, should be dreaded as poison to the sources of national wealth and happiness. No class is the better for its decay or retarded growth: all derive benefit from its increase. And above all, when population is rapidly increasing, let a government beware how it interferes with the natural growth of capital, lest the fund for the employment of labour should fail, and the numbers of the people, instead of being an instrument of national power, should become the unhappy cause of its decay. The material happiness of a people is greatest when the national wealth is increasing more rapidly than the population; when the demand for labour is ever in advance of the supply. It is then also that a people, being contented, are most easily governed; and that taxes are most productive and raised with least difficulty. But while the natural growth of capital should not be interfered with by restrictions, the opposite error of forcing it into particular channels should equally be avoided. Industry requires from government nothing but freedom for its exercise; and capital will then find its own way into the most productive employments; for its genius is more fertile than that of statesmen, and its energy is greatest when left to itself. The best means of aiding its spontaneous development are a liberal encouragement of science and the arts, and a judicious system of popular education and industrial training; for as "knowledge is power," so is it at once the best of all riches and the most efficient producer of wealth.

(Smith's Wealth of Nations, Book II. ch. 3, with Notes by M'Culloch and Wakefield; Ricardo On Political Eco

CAPTAIN (from the French capitaine; in Italian, capitano: both words ate from the Latin caput, a head), in the naval service, is an officer who has the command of a ship of war, and, in the army, is one who commands a troop of cavalry or a company of infantry.

In military affairs the title of captain seems to have been originally applied, both in France and England, like that of General at present, to officers who were placed at the head of armies or of their principal divisions, or to the governors of fortified places. Père Daniel relates that it was at one time given to every military man of noble birth; and adds that, in the sense in which it is at present used, it originated when the French kings gave commission to certain nobles to raise companies of men, in proof of which he quotes an ordonnance of Charles V. This must have been before 1380, in which year that king died. In the English service the denomination of captain, in the same sense, appears to have been introduced about the reign of Henry VII., when it was borne by the officers commanding the yeomen of the guard, and the band of gentlemen pensioners. (Grose's Military Antiquities, vol. i.)

The established price of a captain's commission is, in the Life Guards, 35007; in the Dragoons, 32251.; in the Foot Guards, with the rank of lieutenantcolonel, 4800l.; in the infantry of the line, 1800l.; and no officer can be promoted to the rank of captain until he has been two years an effective subaltern. The full pay of a captain in the Life and Foot Guards is 15s. per day; in the Dragoons 14s. 7d.; and in the Infantry of the Line is 11s. 7d. per day.

The duty of a captain is one of considerable importance, since that officer is responsible for the efficiency of his company in every qualification by which it is rendered fit for service; he has to attend all parades; to see that the clothing, arms, &c. of the men are in good

are duly supplied. When the army is encamped, one captain of each regiment is appointed as captain for the day; his duty is to superintend the camp of his regiment, to attend the parading of the regimental guards, to visit the hospital, to cause the roll to be called frequently and at uncertain hours, and to report everything extraordinary to the commanding officer.

A high degree of responsibility rests upon the commander of a ship of war, since to him is committed the care of a numerous crew, with whom he has to encounter the dangers of the ocean and the chances of battle. And as the floating fortress with its costly artillery and stores, when transferred to the enemy, increases by so much his naval strength, it is evident that nothing but utter inability to prevent him from getting possession can justify the commander in surrendering. In the old French service the captain was prohibited from abandoning his ship under pain of death; and in action he was bound under the same penalty to defend it to the last extremity he was even to blow it up rather than suffer it to fall into the enemy's power.

The pay of a captain in the navy varies with the rate of the ship, from 617. 78. per month for a first-rate, to 261. 17s. for a sixth-rate. Commanders of sloops have 231., and a captain of marines 141. 148. per month.

From the book of general regulations and orders it appears that lieutenants of his majesty's ships rank with captains of the army. Commanders (by courtesy entitled captains) rank with majors. Captains (formerly designated post-captains) with lieutenant-colonels; but after three years from the dates of their commissions they rank with full colonels.

The rank of post-captain was that at which when the commander of a ship of war had arrived, his subsequent promotion to a flag took place only in consequence of seniority, as colonels of the army obtain promotion to the rank of general officers. Such captain was then said to be posted; but this title does not now exist.

Several petty-officers in a ship bear the

CARDINAL (Italian, Cardinale), the highest dignity in the Roman church and court next to the pope. The cardinals are the electors of the pope, and his councillors. The Latin word Cardinalis is used by Vitruvius in his description of doors. The word is derived from the Latin cardo, a hinge. The word was applied by the Latin grammarians to the cardinal numbers as we now call them, one, two, and so on. We also speak of the cardinal virtues, and the cardinal points, North, East, South, and West. The term Cardo was applied by the Romans, in their system of land-measurement, to a meridian line drawn from south to north. (Hyginus, in Goesii Agrimensores, p. 150.) The Roman Cardinals, says Richelet, are SO called, because they are the hinges or points which support the church (Dictionnaire).

In the early times of the church this title was given to the incumbents of the parishes of the city of Rome, and also of other great cities. There were also cardinal deacons, who had the charge of the hospitals for the poor, and who ranked above the other deacons. The cardinal priests of Rome attended the pope on solemn occasions. Leo IV., in the council of Rome, 853, styled them "presbyteros sui cardinis." Afterwards the title of cardinal was given also to the seven bishops suburbicarii, or suffragan of the pope, who took their title from places in the neighbourhood of Rome, namely, Ostia, Porto, Santa Rufina, Sabina, Palestrina, Albano, and Frascati. These bishops were called hebdomadarii, because they attended the pope for a week each in his turn. The cardinals took part with the rest of the Roman clergy in the election of the pope, who was often chosen from among their number. About the beginning of the twelfth century, the popes having organized a regular court, bestowed the rank of cardinal priest or deacon on any individual of the clergy or even laity that they thought proper, whether Roman or foreign, and gave to each the title of some particular church of

titles, and other dignities, the date of their election, and that of their death, which may be found useful for historical reference. (Relazione della Corte di Roma, nuovamente corretta, Rome, 1824; Richard et Giraud, Bibliothèque Sacrée, Paris, 1822, art. "Cardinaux.")

CARRIER, one who for hire undertakes the conveyance of goods or persons for any one who employs him. In a legal sense it extends not only to those who convey goods by land, but also to the owners and masters of ships, mailcontractors, and even to wharfingers who undertake to convey goods for hire from their wharfs to the vessel in their own lighters, but not to mere hackney coach[HACKNEY-COACHES.] For the liability and duties of proprietors of stagecoaches carrying passengers see STAGECOACHES.

men.

in the habit of giving usually stated in substance that the carrier would not be responsible for goods above a certain value (generally 51.), unless entered and paid for accordingly. After repeated discussions in courts of justice, on the effect of these notices, the carriers succeeded in establishing, that they would not be liable in the above circumstances, if they could prove explicitly, in each instance, full knowledge on the part of the person who sent the goods, or his agent, of this specific qualification of their general liability. But proof of this fact was in all cases most difficult to give, and to obviate this difficulty the statute 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 68, was passed, by which it is enacted that no common carrier by land shall be liable for the loss of, or injury to, certain articles, particularly enumerated in the act, contained in any package which shall have been delivered, either to be carried for hire, or to accom

he is in the same situation as one who absolutely insures their safety, even against inevitable accident; he is therefore liable for their loss, though he be robbed of them by a force which he could not resist, on the principle that he might otherwise contrive purposely to be robbed of or to lose the goods, and himself to share the spoil. There are however three exceptions to this liability: 1, loss arising from the king's public enemies; 2, loss arising from the act of God, such as storm, lightning, or tempest; 3, loss arising from the owner's own fault, as by imperfect interior packing, which the carrier could not perceive or remedy.

As property of large value may be compressed into a small space and transmitted by carriers, they have in modern times endeavoured by notices to lessen the extensive charge that the common law cast upon them. The notice that they were

article shall exceed the sum of 10., unless, at the time of the delivery of the package to the carrier, the value and nature of such article shall have been explicitly declared. In such case the carrier may demand an increased rate of charge, a table of which increased rates must be affixed in legible characters in some public and conspicuous part of the receiving office; and all persons who send goods are bound by such notice without further proof of the same having come to their knowledge.

The Carriers' Act applies only to carriers by land, and the liability of carriers by sea is the common liability before explained, slightly modified. [SHIPS.]

Upon the general principle that persons who, at the request of their owners, bestow money or labour on goods can detain them until those charges are paid, a carrier can refuse to deliver up goods, which have come into his possession as a carrier, until his reasonable charges for the carriage are paid. This in law is called a particular lien, in contradiction to a general lien. [LIEN.]

(Sir W. Jones on Bailments; Selwyn's Nisi Prius, title Carrier; and Chitty on Contracts not under seal, title Carrier.)

CASH CREDIT. [BANK, p. 278.] CATHEDRAL. Certain churches are

CATHOLIC CHURCH (Roman). Although in ordinary language this name is often used to designate the ruling authority or power in the Catholic religion, as if distinct from the members of that communion, yet the definition which Catholics give of the church is such as to comprehend the entire body of its members as well as its rulers, the flock as much as the shepherds. Thus we hear of Catholics being under the dominion of their church, or obliged to obey it, as though it were something distinct from themselves, or as if they were not a part of their church. This preliminary remark is made to explain a certain vagueness of expression, which often leads to misapprehension, and serves as the basis of incorrect ideas regarding the peculiar doctrines of that church. The Catholic church therefore is defined to be the community of the faithful united to their lawful pastors, in communion with the see of Rome, or with the pope, the successor of St. Peter and vicar of Christ on earth.

Simply developing the terms of this definition, we will give a brief sketch of the constitution or fundamental system of this church under the heads of its government, its laws, and its vital or constitutive principle.

I. The government of the Catholic church may be considered monarchical, inasmuch as the pope is the ruler over the entire church, and the most distant bishop of the Catholic church holds his appointment from him, and receives from him his authority. No bishop can be considered lawfully consecrated without his approbation. The dignity or office of pope is inherent in the occupant of the see of Rome, because the supremacy over

The election of the pope, therefore, devolves upon the clergy of Rome, as being their bishop; and it is confided to the college of cardinals, who, bearing the titles of the eldest churches in that city, represent its clergy, and form their chapter or electoral body. The meeting or chapter formed for this purpose alone is called a conclave. The cardinals are appointed by the pope, and compose the executive council of the church. They preside over the various departments of ecclesiastical government, and are divided into boards or congregations, as they are called, for the transaction of business from all parts of the world; but every decision is subject to the pope's revision, and has no value except from his approbation. On some occasions they are all summoned to meet the pope on affairs of higher importance, as for the nomination of bishops, or the admission of new members into their body; and then the assembly is called a consistory. The full number of cardinals is seventy, but there are always some hats left vacant.

The Catholic church, being essentially episcopal, is governed by bishops, who are of two sorts, bishops in ordinary, and vicars apostolic. By the first are meant titular bishops, or such as bear the name of the see over which they rule; as the Archbishop of Paris, or of Dublin; the Bishop of Cambray, or of New Orleans. The manner of appointing such bishops varies considerably. When they are unshackled by the government, the clergy of the diocese meet in chapter, according to old forms, and having selected three names, forward them to the Holy See, where one is chosen for promotion. This is the case in Ireland, Belgium, and perhaps in the free states of America. In most countries however the election of bishops is regulated by concordat, that is, a special agreement between the pope and