votes. It was an "era of good feeling," and most of the Federalists now called themselves Federal-Republicans, as indicating their satisfaction with the party in power.

Female Suffrage. (See Woman Suffrage.)

Fenians, or Fenian Brotherhood.-A political association which has aimed at the forcible separation of Ireland from English rule. The name comes from the ancient Irish warriors, the Finna, Fianna or Fionna. The brotherhood was founded in New York in 1857. John O'Mahoney, William R. Roberts, James Stephens and O'Donovan Rossa were prominent leaders, the first two especially so in this country. Their importance in our history arises from their attempts to make the United States a base for their operations in Ireland and Canada against the English. Large sums of money were collected here from time to time to carry on their work. Their first congress was held at Chicago in November, 1863. They seized on the differences which existed between the United States and Great Britain during the Civil War and afterward, and tried to widen the breach, hoping to precipitate these nations into war and thus increase their chances for freeing Ireland. Their schemes in this direction, however, were not successful. In 1866 they attempted to invade Canada from the United States. In the spring of that year 500 men gathered at Eastport, Maine, but disbanded when the United States authorities captured 750 stand of arms that were intended for them. In May, government officials seized 1,200 stand of arms at Rouse's Point, New York, and about 1,000 stand at St. Albans, Vermont. On the first of June, 1,500 Fenians, commanded by Colonel O'Neill, crossed the Niagara River at Buffalo. After a slight success they were routed, and about 700 were captured on their return by the United States forces. A similar event took place on the Vermont line. Two of the prisoners who had been captured by the Canadian forces were sentenced to death, but were respited largely through the intercession of Secretary of State Seward and other Americans. Those who had

been captured by the United States authorities were released on parole or after a short imprisonment. In the spring of 1867 a brig, Erin's Hope, sailed from New York for Ireland with arms and ammunition, but was unable to land them, and, after losing by capture some of her force, returned to New York. In the spring of 1870 another invasion of Canada was attempted, but General Meade was sent to the scene of operations and seized the men and arms. Meanwhile, Fenian efforts in England and Ireland had not relaxed. The account of them is stirring but does not belong to our history. The brotherhood did not succeed in liberating Ireland, though it was perhaps due in some measure to their agitation that reforms were soon adopted in its government by England. Many of the leaders were imprisoned and some sentenced to penal servitude for life. Few Die and None Resign. (See Civil Service Reform.)

Fiat Money.-The word fiat means decree. Money that is constituted money by a mere decree, and that has nothing of value on which to rest as a basis, is called fiat money. It is also called credit money. only fiat money in circulation in this country is the legal tender notes.

The

Fifty-four Forty or Fight.-A cry adopted during the Northwestern Boundary discussion by those who disapproved of yielding our claims to the territory short of fifty-four degrees forty minutes of latitude, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.

Fighting Joe.-A name applied to General Joseph Hooker during the Civil War. Hooker was born in 1819 and died in 1879. He was at one time commander of the Army of the Potomac, but soon after his defeat at Chancellorsville he resigned his command. The battle in connection with which he is best known is Lookout Mountain, the Battle Above the Clouds.

Fight it Out on this Line if It Takes all Summer. (See I Propose to Fight it Out on this Line if It Takes all Summer.)

Filibusters.-This word comes from the Spanish

filibusteros, who were West Indian pirates. Their name was derived from a small fast-sailing vessel which they employed, called a filibote (originally fly-boat), and said to have been so styled from the river Vly in Holland. The term filibusters came to be applied to all military adventurers. In the United States it has two meanings. First, it is given to the members of the minority of a legislative body who seek to delay or defeat the adoption of measures obnoxious to them by obstruction and dilatory tactics, such as constant motions to adjourn, or calls for yeas and nays. Secondly, the name filibusters is applied to the adventurers who organized expeditions in the United States to gain control of West Indian and Central American regions with the hope of having them annexed to the United States, and thus extending the slave territory of the nation. The first of these expeditions was organized by a Cuban, Narcisco Lopez. After making two attempts in 1849 and 1850 which proved failures, he sailed from New Orleans with about 500 men and landed in Cuba in August, 1851. His force was overpowered by the authorities, and he and several other leaders were executed. The next filibustering expeditions were undertaken by General William Walker. In 1853 and 1854 he attempted to conquer Lower California and the State of Sonora, Mexico, but failed. In 1855 he went to Nicarauga with a few followers. Profiting by internal dissensions in that country, he gained several victories and had himself elected President. He reëstablished slavery and seized the property of the Vanderbilt Steamship Company. But his arbitrary acts created a revolution, and early in 1857 he surrendered himself to Commander Davis, of the United States Navy, who took him to New Orleans. He was released under bonds to keep the peace, but in November he was found once more in Nicarauga. In December, however, he surrendered again, this time to Commodore Paulding of our navy, who carried him to New York. Finding himself again at liberty, he attempted to start with a new expedition from New Orleans, but was prevented by the national authorities. His last expedition was

directed against Honduras in 1860. In June of that year he landed with a small force at Trujillo, but was captured, court-martialed and, on September 12th, shot. Since then no filibustering expeditions from this country have been known. (See Ostend Manifesto; Tripartite Treaty.)

Fillmore, Millard, was born in Cayuga County, New York, January 7, 1800. He died at Buffalo, March 8, 1874. His early education was obtained entirely by his own efforts. He served in Congress from 1833 to 1835, and from 1837 to 1843, as a Whig. He was of the Silver-Gray faction of the Whigs. In 1848 he was elected Vice-President, and on President Taylor's death he succeeded to the presidency. The principal measure passed during his administration was the Omnibus Bill.

Fire Eater is a term used to denote a person of extreme and violent Southern views.

First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of his Countrymen.-These words are contained in the resolutions prepared by Henry Lee, of Virginia, that were passed by the House of Representatives on the death of Washington.

First President of the Southern Confederacy. (See Calhoun, John C.)

Fiscal Tariff. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Fishery Treaties.-The right of citizens of the United States to fish in the open sea has never been denied, but their privileges of fishing in British waters or landing on British territory (Canada and Newfoundland) to dry or cure their catch have been limited by treaty at various times. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 excluded our fishermen only from drying fish on the coasts of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton. Our rights were of course suspended during the War of 1812, and the Treaty of Ghent (1814) failed to settle the question anew. Our fishing vessels were excluded from British harbors and coasts, and several were seized. On October 20, 1818, commissioners from both countries signed a convention in

London, giving our fishermen the right to catch fish within extensive prescribed limits, and to land on the British coasts to dry or cure their catches, denying their right to fish within three marine miles of other British territory, and giving them admission to all British harbors for wood, water, shelter or the repair of damages. On June 5, 1854, a reciprocity treaty was signed (confirmed by the Senate, August 3d) which, besides providing for free trade in certain articles between Canada and the United States, gave our fishermen full rights on the Canadian coasts and British fishermen similar rights on our coasts north of Cape May, in latitude thirty-six degrees north, each nation, however, reserving its shad and salmon fisheries and certain rivers and mouths of rivers. This treaty terminated on March 17, 1867, in accordance with its provisions and the designated notice given by the United States. The Convention of London (1818) now came into operation once more, though for four years our fishermen could still follow their business in Canadian waters on the payment of a formal license fee. In 1870 several of our vessels were seized and forfeited for not paying this license fee. The Treaty of Washington (1871) touched, among other subjects, on the fisheries, giving full rights to us on the Canadian coasts and to British fishermen on our coasts north of latitude thirtynine degrees north, except that to each nation were reserved its shell, shad, salmon and river fisheries. Free trade was established in most fishery products, and a commission was appointed to decide on the compensation which the United States should pay for these privileges. (See Halifax Fishery Commission.) In 1878 a difficulty occurred under the treaty, for which see Fortune Bay Outrages. On June 30, 1885, the Treaty of Washington, so far as it concerned the fisheries, ceased to be operative, owing to notice given by the United States in accordance with the treaty. The Canadian authorities permitted our vessels to finish out the season. In May, 1886, one of our fishing schooners, the David J. Adams, was seized on the charge of having