knowledge. To do so in a way comparable to European practice, it must create interest in scientific subjects in the elementary school. In order to accomplish this there must necessarily be adequate scientific equipment for the schools, and proper scientific training for the teachers. The report of the British Association Committee, above referred to, is to be found in Chap. XXXVI, scc. 4.

At the present time the schools of the Department of Public Instruction are inadequately equipped for scientific teaching, both in respect of material and personnel; nor have the teachers, even when passing through the training school, any adequate scientific teaching-certainly nothing comparable to what they receive in Europe. This absence of science-teaching in the primary (public) schools of the State is a grave defect, and cannot be remedied except by a different scheme of educating our teachers. What little science is learnt is not, speaking generally of course, realistically learnt, either by the teachers or by the scholars. In the words of M. Dr. Guex, of Switzerland, "Direct observation of things must be substituted for the study of words; the child must be taught to exercise his judgment, by guiding it, without imposing upon him ready-made ideas; he must be made to learn little but discover much," etc.

Special attention is drawn to the teaching of natural science in Europe in the lowest classes of schools. Anyone who has been through the primary (public) schools of this State, or knows the nature of the object lessons given therein, will see, on making a comparison with the programmes given in Chap. XXVI for Austrian, Belgian, German, Swiss, and other schools, how very far behind we are in this State. Primary schools in some parts of Europe are excellently equipped for the teaching of science (far better than even the secondary schools here), and it is a hopeful sign in England to see that the training schools for primary teachers are recognising the necessity for properly educating their teachers in this respect, by having wellequipped laboratories for the scientific education of the student of teaching. The great educative value, as well as the immense practical importance of scientific knowledge, affords one of the strongest reasons for making reform in this matter urgent.

Reference may be made to the recognition by Belgium of the value of scientific knowledge to the farming and dairying population and its influence on education. At the present time Belgium practically supplies her own needs in respect of dairy products, whereas a decade ago her imports were large. This is the result of a suitable education of her people. Scientific instruction in the primary school is an essential basis for proper subsequent development, either in higher education, or in education for ordinary agricultural, commercial, industrial, or other pursuits. The child, properly taught the elements of science, has a far more intelligent outlook upon the world, and a better understanding of its present activity, than he has where the subject is neglected. Chapter XXVI should be read in connection with these remarks.

A very interesting circumstance noted by the Commissioners was the frequency of gifts of materials for the school museums by the principals of various industrial establishments. Another matter of interest was the fact that collections are frequently contributed to by the school children themselves.

In regard to apparatus, there will be little difficulty when the teacher is properly educated. "It is by simple and inexpensive apparatus that such conceptions of physical science as may be included in the programmes of the primary schools, are established," says the French official programme [Chap. XXVI, sec. 8], and the student-teachers in at least one of the normal schools take, on leaving, a cabinet for chemical and similar experiments, made by them during their course. [Chap. LI, sec. 4].

Given an education equal to that given in the European schools for the training of teachers, our teachers throughout the country will have little difficulty in practically orientating their teaching according to the circumstances of the locality, and without causing the instruction to lose its educative value. In this way the instruction will not only be of far greater interest to the children, but will also materially help to increase our wealth and well-being.

The primary school is not the place to substitute trade or professional for educative instruction; nevertheless, a practical orientation of all subjects is in no way inconsistent with the maintenance of the educative value of the teaching. To make primary schools mere schools of book-keeping, of agriculture, of dairying, of carpentry,

carpentry, joinery, etc., would enormously reduce their educative value. On the other hand, an intelligent and properly-educated teacher will have no difficulty in illustrating the subjects in the curricula (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, science, etc.) in such a way as to immensely reinforce their interest, and render them directly beneficial. It is important not to be betrayed into this mere trade or professional view, on the assumption that the value of the education is increased. The contrary is the truth.

It ought to be added that systematic science-teaching by a properly educated and trained teaching-staff should not be confounded with a spasmodic inclusion of science-subjects in a curriculum, to be taught by insufficiently educated teachers, who will at best learn the science in question in a merely literary way.

V.

THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

[G. H. KNIBBS.]

1. Introduction.-There is but one way of making the educational system of this State satisfactory, and that is by

(a) Properly educating and training our teachers.

(6) Making our school buildings respond to the requirements of a good school-hygiene.

(c) Making the educational equipment of the schools more complete; and (d) Introducing a suitable scheme of instruction.

The defect in our system at present, unmistakably evidenced by our employment of pupil-teachers, and by the method of educating and training of the teachers, both during their pupil-teachership and in the training college, has been dealt with in Division III. It remains to shew how our teachers may be thus better educated as the most fundamental step in reform. Anything short of an equal education and training to what is received in Europe, must necessarily be inadequate, since it would inevitably leave our system inferior. Mere changes in the curriculum amount to very little, unless they are parts of a properly organised system, taught by adequately educated and trained teachers; for the thoroughness of the teacher's professional preparation for his work is what makes any curriculum significant, and it is obvious, therefore, that the personal factor must be taken into account. Education cannot be materially improved by merely mechanical changes.

In considering how much the State has to make good in this respect, it ought to be borne in mind that the effect of good teaching is cumulative, and that where the primary school is supplied by a thoroughly qualified staff, the education and outlook of the candidates for teaching are, age for age, far better than in countries where, from defects in the curriculum, imperfect methods, or from want of properly qualified teachers, the teaching is inferior. Consequently, one of the most serious difficulties is that of rapidly improving the average professional qualification of the teacher. Owing to the system followed, the teacher's calling does not command the respect it should-an inevitable consequence of the pupil-teacher system, and, indeed, of any system that is lax as regards such qualification. This reacts, of course, upon the willingness of the better class of men and women to engage in teaching, far more so than the question of emoluments, which also is not unimportant. In Germany and America, and in fact in many European countries, ladies of good social standing are entering into primary and kindergarten teaching, despite the fact that the emoluments are small. In Europe especially, the social status of female teachers is often distinctly higher than that of male teachers. This influx of a better class into the teaching profession is a consequence of increasing public respect for the office of the teacher and of a recognition of the fact that woman, especially in junior classes, has an important mission, and one which will greatly affect the national future, viz., the creation of noble ideals in the child mind. When viewed in relation to its ultimate influence on the community, and when the nature of true education is regarded, the improved status is seen to be one of the most potent factors for good, for it fundamentally affects the development of the national character. Teachers are called upon, in fact, to deal with the human heart and mind at a period of life when they are most susceptible to formative influences,

and

and this is why all educationists realise that the earliest influences are those of highest importance. It is for this reason that so much weight is attached to the kind of work done in the kindergarten, and why kindergartners are asked to prepare themselves very thoroughly, not only by acquiring a good education, but also by studying psychology, educational theory and history, the phænomena of child life, etc., in addition to their special professional work, viz., the technique of the kindergarten. No one can witness the effect of the true kindergarten without realising the justice of this view of the teacher's function, and what a transforming influence the kindergarten has on the character and ideals of the little child.

When the question of the education and training of teachers is examined, the importance of the formative elements for their own development is equally obvious, and it is seen how much depends upon the tone and character of the whole scheme. This is important in two respects-firstly in relation to the teacher directly, secondly in relation to public appreciation of his work; for it is desirable to induce men and women of the highest character and education to enter this calling, to remain in it, and to command for it public respect. To some extent the inducement may be created by increase of emoluments, and in this State that aspect cannot be overlooked. It is, however, more dependent upon the fact that the people of this State, as a whole, recognise that the higher qualification of the teacher is necessary. A public opinion in favour of sound education is an essential if we are to be educationally the peers of America and of Europe. Without the preparation we must be content to admit our inferiority. Pretence at anything else is idle, and it is in this way that one may see the unspeakable importance to the future of our State and Empire of our educational system, and the Commissioners feel that it would be difficult to state this too strongly.

2. Principles of reform in the training of teachers.-The subject of reform in training our teachers is discussed in Chapter XL. In order to place education in this State on a proper footing, it will be necessary to pass as quickly as possible from the present system, which charges itself only with a very imperfect training of (only a portion of) its teaching staff, to one which completely abandons the pupilteacher system, and which gives all teachers a better preliminary education and an adequate professional training before they are allowed to teach at all. This will involve strenuous effort and, as pointed out in Chapter XL, sec. 41, the sending of several of the younger and better educated men to Europe to learn the methods of the great pædagogical seminaries of France, Switzerland, and Germany, the men being selected from those who, in addition to possessing the necessary general qualifications, have also qualified themselves linguistically.

Much may be done through the personal influence of the directors of the training colleges, for their ability to inspire with high ideals is among the most powerful of the formative influences that affect student-teachers. In this light it is evident that a director should have the fullest opportunity of maintaining close touch with the higher view of education, and with its movement throughout the world. That he should be liberally cultured and possess savoir faire so as to help to form the disposition of the teachers during their professional education goes without saying. As his personality must react on the teachers, so must the teachers react upon the rising generations of the State in order to reach the results desired. All this is obvious when account is taken of the elements determining the moral and mechanical efficiency of the teacher. These elements [Chap. XL, sec. 3], may be indicated as follows:

3. Formative Influences.-The formative influences, the powerful operation of which on a teacher's mind, in order to prepare him for his work, is so necessary, are partly historical and partly philosophical in their origin. The function of the study of the history of education is indicated in Chap. XL, sec. 4. Properly treated this subject will efface the narrowing tendency to empiricism, and will serve as a source of inspiration to high effort. If the selection be properly made, no candidate for the teaching profession can help feeling his moral fibre stirred by the noble examples of the great figures in the history of education.

The function of the philosophy of education is indicated in Chap. XL, sec. 5. The study of this subject ensures recognition of the real aim and process of education, and guards against the belittling effect of that self-sufficiency to which, through daily contact with the child-mind, the teacher is liable, unless he specially safeguards himself; ; thus it tends toward professional thoroughness. The philosophy of education, covering, as it does, the question of its purpose (teleology), and its method (methodology), greatly broadens the outlook on the subject. The former deals with the moral aims of education [Chap. III, secs. 3-8, Chap. XL, sec. 7], and the latter largely with the psychology of method [Chap. III, secs. 9-18, Chap. XL, secs. 6-13].

From the study of pædagogic-psychology it has been learnt that the essential difference between empirical and rational methods depends, not upon the empirical prescriptions of psychology, but upon its rational guidance [Chap. XL, sec. 10].

Bearing in mind that the teacher is daily moulding the child, by influencing the formation of his physical, mental, and moral habits [Chap. XL, sec. 7], it is evident that he ought to have an intelligent knowledge of physiology, hygiene, general psychology, and ethics. How great the nced for the first two subjects is shewn, both in the way we have built our schools, and the conditions under which we have placed the children in them, especially in regard to lighting and seating [Chaps. XLVII to XLIX], and in regard to the physical discomfort of schools in cold parts of the State during winter. Without serious increase of cost, and often without cost at all, the hygienic conditions of school-life could be made to correspond with normal requirements. This defect is deplorable, and illustrates the importance of keeping our system in proper touch with the progress in school hygiene elsewhere. matter, viz., the seating, was referred to long ago by Dr. Reuter Roth (1885), and there is no doubt that the physique of our people suffers through it. [Chap. XLVIII, sec. 3-18]. In this connection, the importance of better and wider professional education for the teacher is clearly seen.

One

It may be remarked that these ideas are not Utopian. They represent the practice of other parts of the world where the value of sound education is appreciated; and what is possible elsewhere is possible here if only we are in earnest.

4. The Curriculum for Teachers.-The subjects in the curriculum for teachers may be analysed under two divisions, viz., the formative and informative, or, in other words, those that favourably influence his mental attitude toward his professional work, and those that inform him, i.e., qualify him to give instruction with a sufficiently wide outlook. These are dealt with in Chap. XL, secs. 11 and 17. The formative subjects, or those which confer educative power, may be regarded as the following:

(i) History of Education.

(ii) Theory of Education.

(iii) Psychology in relation to Pedagogy.

(iv) Ethics in relation to Pædagogy.

(v) Elementary anatomy and physiology.

(vi) School Hygiene.

(vii) Physical Culture and Gymnastics.

The inclusion of these is necessary to place the teachers of this State on the same footing as their confrères in Europe, and to properly develope our education system, through the force of a wider outlook.

5. Qualification in subjects of instruction.-When the curricula of the seminaries of Europe and America, and the modern training colleges of England, are compared with the work done in the training colleges of this State, it will be at once realised that we are a long way behind. It is, of course, impossible to compare a

short

short course like that of the New South Wales system with fully developed courses like those of Europe, where the necessity for educating and training every teacher is more thoroughly recognised. To place the teachers of this State on a similar footing in regard to large outlook and educative power, the subjects of instruction ought to have about the following range :-

(a) The development of the English language and literature, (b) Grammar and analysis, (c) Prosody, (d) Outlines of logic and rhetoric.

(a) Latin, or (b) French, or (c) German.

(a) Ancient, (b) Modern, (c) English,

(a) Topographical, (b) Industrial, (c) Commercial, (d) Political, (e) Physical, (f) Mathematical.

(a) The solar system, (b) The stellar universe.

(2) Arithmetic, (b) Algebra, (c) Trigonometry, (d) Planimetry, (e) Stereometry, including spherical trigonometry, (f) Projective geometry, (g) Historical development of mathe

matics.

(a) Botany, () Zoology, (c) Chemistry and Mineralogy, (d) Geology.

(e) Physics, (f) Anthropology and Hygiene.

(a) Theory of Music, (b) Class-singing, etc.

(c) Instrumental Music.

(a) Freehand, (b) Geometrical, (c) Modelling, etc.

(a) Theory of position in writing.

(b) Plain and Ornamental Writing.
(c) Lettering.

An outline is suggested in secs. 17-34, based upon the work done in the Seminarium at Küsnacht, Switzerland, which should be regarded as illustratire of the kind of work done in Europe. This may be read in conjunction with Chaps. XXXII-XXXIX for a more complete idea.

6. Instructors of Teachers.-The principle followed in Europe is that the instructors of teachers shall be men of good general education, either University graduates, or men of University standard of general education, and that they shall be specialists in their particular subjects. They teach either a single subject or a cognate group. This method obviously has enormous advantages. [Chap. XXVIII, sec. 4]. Each teacher is a master of his subject, having enthusiasin therein if he be rightly selected.

Moreover, each teacher is expected to have thought of the methodology of imparting his subject. His function is not merely to instruct the teacher, but also to reveal to him the relationship of cognate subjects, and to educate him as a teacher. The difference between a properly-equipped teachers' training college and a University proper should be distinctly recognised. A training college is a professional school, and must adapt its teaching accordingly-that is, it must aim at properly equipping the teacher for his professional work.

7. Proper Nature of Training Colleges.-The defects of the New South Wales training scheme are stated in Chap. XL, sec. 37. These defects touch the curriculum, and the scheme of the college itself. Attention may now be restricted to the latter. No seminary for teachers can be regarded as properly equipped that has not an adjunct school for practice. This school should be ideally equipped, so as to be an object-lesson in educational equipment, and in school-method, to all teachers passing through it. The adjunct school must necessarily be small, and provide for student-teachers as auditors. The idea of such an establishment is outlined in Chap. XL, sec. 38. Athough, perhaps, it should not be part of the University, yet it is eminently desirable that the training college in the metropolis should be in the closest possible association therewith, so as to maintain sympathy and touch with higher education generally; and, further, that, as far as possible, it may have such instructional advantages as a University can offer. Student-teachers will be favourably influenced by being thus brought into direct contact with higher education.

The