$193. At a very early period probably men became acquainted with gems, and in the same way it is likely as with metals, by the subversion or abrasion of the soil in which they existed. Even the imper

fect lustre of the rude gem might attract attention, and accident might first suggest the idea of increasing the lustre by friction. It needed but a glance at a fractured gem to perceive, that it would be rendered brighter and more beautiful by removing the exterior surface or roughness. This was perhaps originally done by rubbing two stones together; since, as is known, almost every precious stone may be polished by its own powder. The evidence of this early acquaintance with gems will be given below ($199).

§194 u. A particular knowledge of the nature, formation, and divisions of the precious stones belongs properly to the naturalist. Yet the artist and amateur cannot wholly dispense with this knowledge in order that they may judge of the real substance of gems, although the design and execution of the engraving are their principal object of attention. As to the classification of gems, the mineralogical systems differ in principles; some distinguishing the stones by their elementary parts, others by their degree of density and transparency, or by their colors. The two last methods are not sufficiently exact, as they are not based on essential and exclusive characteristics. Hardness, lustre, transparency, and beauty of color, are the most important peculiarities and recommendations of a gem.

See F. B. Brueckman's Abhandlung von Edelsteinen. Braunschw. 1773. 8. and Beitraege to the same, Braunschw. 1778 and 1783.- For a view of the nature of gems, see F. S. Beudant, Traité element. de Mineralogie. Par. 1830. vol. 1. p. 704. Cf. Dictionnaire classique d'Histoire Naturelle, par Audouin, &c. Par. 1828. tome 111. p. 542. — Mawe, Treatise on Precious Stones. Lond. 1813. 8. with colored plates. - L. Feuchtwanger, Treatise on Gems &c. a Guide for the Lapidary, Artist, Amateur, &c. N. Yk. 1838. 8.

$195. Without going into a full enumeration of all the kinds of precious stones, we shall mention those which are worthy of notice on account of their use in lithoglyphy.

1u. The Diamond (duas, adamas), with the ancients, held the first rank among precious stones, on account of its brilliancy, hardness, and transparency. Yet it is not certain that they employed it for engraving. Even the polishing of it seems to have been unknown to them, or the art was lost and discovered again about 1467 by Louis de Berguen of Brixen.

The Ruby (vooros, carbunculus) approaches the Diamond in hardness, and often surpasses it in lustre. The Romans named different varieties of this gem rubacellus, palassius, spinellus. Pliny (xxxvii. 29.) mentions lychnis as a sort of ruby.

The Emerald probably had its name (smaragdus, ouúqaydos derived from pagaooo) from its peculiar gloss. On account of its beautiful green, both agreeable and salutary to the eyes of the artist, it was frequently used in lithoglyphy. The ancients seem to have included under the term smaragdus all gems of a green color, and especially the dark Beryl called by jewelers the aquamarine. The smaragdites was merely a variety of green marble, which, although often called smaragdus (a), must be distinguished from the emerald. The Sapphire (ouлq81005, sapphirus, also zvavoc, cyanus), of a beautiful skyblue color, was esteemed nearly equal to the Diamond. That, which had mingled with it tinges of gold, was called chrysoprase (xovo¿æquoos).

The name of Beryl (3/qvidos, beryllus) was given to all transparent stones of a pale or sea green. The Chrysoberyl was of a yellowish hue.

The Jacinth or Hyacinth (vireos) is of a deep red, often an orange color. The stone of violet hue, to which the ancients gave also the same name, seems to have been rather a species of Amethyst.

The Amethyst (quéðvoros), violet colored in different degrees and shades, was much sought for by ancient artists. One variety of it was held in particular estimation; that which they termed naιdigws, or artigos, and the gem of Venus (gemma Veneris).

The Agate (azurns) received its name from the river Achates in Sicily, where the stone was first found. Agates (b) are of various shades in transparency and color. The agate-onyx, with a white surface and another color beneath, was often employed for engraving in relief, the surface of the stone being used for the figure. There are numerous sorts.

The Carnelian is so called from its color resembling that of flesh (carnis). It belongs to the class of agates. It was very frequently used for purposes of engraving (c), on account of the ease with which it could be wrought.

The Sardine or Sardius (opdivos, oudios, sarda) is likewise red and of the same kind as the Carnelian. It is used for seals and signets very much, because it is so readily detached from the wax. The term sarda was a common name for every kind of Carnelian.

The Opal (105, opalus) is ordinarily white, but occurs with other colors. It was much esteemed (d) by the ancients.

The Jasper (iαoxic, iaspis) presents various colors, red, green, brown, gray which sometimes appear simple, and sometimes mingled. For lithoglyphy the latter kind was preferred, particularly that with red spots upon a green ground, which was also called heliotropia.

The Onyx (or) took its name from its whitish red color resembling the nails of the hand. That which presents veins of red was termed Sardonyx. A kind of marble of similar color was also termed onyx or Onychitis, and likewise Alabastrites.

The Crystal (zovora2205, crystallus) was so called from its resemblance in form to ice (zoos, xquorúw). Ancient artists made use of it both in lithoglyphy, and for drinking vessels on which devices were to be sculptured.

(a) Pliny speaks of many varieties of the Emerald. The real gem was highly prized When the rich Lucullus visited Alexandria, Ptolemy is said to have presented to him an emerald bearing on it an engraved likeness of the king of Egypt; and this was considered as the most valuable present which could be made. But, when it is stated that the hall of Ahasuerus was paved with emerald; that a temple of Hercules was adorned with pillars of emerald; and that whole statues were cut in emerald; the maragdites, or some variety of marble, must be meant. Gems of emerald have been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. (b) Agates seem to have been frequently used for vases; some beautiful vases of this stone are preserved in the collections at Dresden and Brunswick. If a stone presented two colors, so that the raised figure could be of a color different from the rest of the surface, it was specially valued. Very fine specimens of such engraved stones are preserved in the Royal Museum at Paris. — (c) The Carnelian, and the stones included under the names of Agate and Onyx, seem to have been the ones most commonly used in forming cameos (cf. $196). "Many very fine specimens are preserved in the public collections. (d)" Nonius, à Roman senator, possessed an Opal of extraordinary beauty valued at £160,000; rather than part with which to Mark Antony, he chose to suffer exile. He fed to Egypt; and there, it was supposed, secreted his gem;" and it was never more heard of until, in modern times, a Frenchman by the name of Roboly pretended to have found it amidst the ruins of Alexandria. Only a few engraved specimens are found in the collections.

2u. In reference to the accounts given of precious stones by ancient writers, particularly by Pliny, the 37th Bk. of whose Natural History is devoted to this topic, it must not be forgotten that the names and characteristics therein given do not always belong to the stones which bear those names in modern science. Many of the ancient gems must be distinguished from such as have the same names now, but different characteristics. The smallest points of variance were sufficient with the ancients to secure to a precious stone a new name. See L de Launay's Tableau de Comparaison de la Mineralogie des Anciens avec celle des Modernes, in his Mineralogie des Anciens. Brux. 1803. 2 vols. 12.-N. F. Moore, Ancient Mineralogy, or Inquiry respecting the mineral substances mentioned by the ancients &c. N. York. 1834. 12. commended in Silliman's Journal of Science, vol. xxv. p. 188.

3. Several precious stones are enumerated in Exodus (xxviii. 17-20); by the Sept. thus : σάρδιον, τοπάζιον, σμαραγδος, ἄνθραξ, σάπφειρος, ἴασπις, λιγύριον, άχατης, ἀμέθυστος, χρυσόλιθος, βηρύλλιον, ἀνύχιον. The list in Rev. xxi. contains also χαλκηδών, σαρδόνυξ, χρυσόπρασος, υάκινθος.

See Epiphanius, de xii Gemmis &c. on the xii gems in the breast-plate of Aaron, in his Opera. Colon. 1682. 2 vols. fol.-also in Gessner, De fossilium genere, cited P. II. § 268.

4. Some have included among the gems the Murra or murrhinum, mentioned by Pliny, of which were made the vessels (rasa murrina) so much valued by the Romans. But as to the nature of this substance there have been many conjectures, of which the most probable seems to be, that it was a kind of porcelain. "The vases were in such esteem at Rome, in the first ages of the Christian era, that two of them were bought by one of the emperors at the price (a) of 300 sestertium, more than £2000 sterling each. A cup capable of

holding three sextarii (4 1-2 pints) was sold for seventy talents; and a dish for three hundred; a talent being equal to £180 English.'

(a) Silliman's Amer. Journ. of Science and Art. vol. xxvI. p. 236. See Graf von Veltheim, Abhandlung über die Vasa murrina. Helmst.1791. 8.-Gurlitt, über die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 1798. 4. Roloff, über die murrinischen Gefæsse der Alten, in the Museum der Alterthumsw. by Wolf & Buttmann (Bd. 11).—Launay, Mineral. des Anciens, above cited, vol. 1. p. 85.-Le Blond & Larcher, Les Vases murrhines, Mem. Acad. Inser. vol. xLin. p. 217, 238.-Mongez, Sur les vases murrhins, Mem. de l'Instit. Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. n. p. 133.-Cf. Class. Journ. 1. 242. 5. The substance called alabaster (àláßaorgos) was employed by the ancients as the material for their unguentary vases, or the vessels for holding precious perfumes and ointments. Hence the term aláßaoroov came to be used as a common name for a vase or bottle designed for this purpose (cf. Matt. xxvi. 7.), of whatever it might be formed, whether of alabaster, gold, glass, or other material. The alabaster of the ancients was, according to Dr. E. D. Clarke, carbonated lime, and precisely the substance which forms the stalactites in the famous grotto of Antiparos.-Clarke's Travels, vol. 111. p. 275, ed. N. Yk. 1815.

$196. On these gems the figures were formed either in depression below the surface, or in relief above. Those of the first kind were called, by the ancients, 2100 day2vnто, gemmæ diaglyphica, insculptæ. Those of the other kind were called 28o avάyhvлтоi, gemmæ ectypæ, anaglyphica, exsculpta. The moderns also apply distinguishing terms to the two kinds : gems with figures cut below the surface are called intaglios; gems with figures in relief above the surface are called cameos.

1u. Where the figure is formed below the surface of the gem, the depression is of different degrees, according to the perspective. Sometimes the surface of the gem receives a swelling form like that of a shield, to enable the artist to express the prominent parts more naturally and without curtailment and preserve a more accurate perspective.

2u. The word cameo was formed, it may be, from the union of two words, viz. gemma onychia, as it originally was applied only to gems of onyx having two colors, the figure in relief being formed of the upper color, and the other appearing in the ground. Or it may have come from the name of a shell, Came, which is found on the coast of Trapani in Sicily, and which has various figures on it in a sort of relief.

See J. D. Fiorillo, Abh. über das Wort Camee, in his Klein. Schrift. artistischen Inhalts.

ous.

$197. The objects represented upon engraved gems are very variOften the figures transmit and preserve the memory of particular persons, remarkable events, civil and religious rites and customs, or other matters worthy of notice. Sometimes the whole is an arbitrary device of the artist, combining and exhibiting mythical, allegorical, and imaginary objects. Frequently we find merely heads, of gods, heroes or distinguished personages, either singly, or one after another (capita jugata), or facing each other (adversa), or turned the opposite way (aversa). The heads usually appear in profile. In discovering and explaining the design, it is useful to compare the pieces with coins and with other gems.

$198. Upon many gems are found figures in full length, either single or grouped. There are, for example, full figures of gods with various costumes, and appendages. Frequently mythical and allegorical representations are united. Many times the engravings illustrate points of history and antiquities. Festivals, sacrifices, bacchanals, feats in hunting and the like, are often presented. There are gems also with inscriptions, which usually give the name of the artist, but not with certainty, because the inscription is so often made subsequently to the time of the engraving. Some gems also bear in large letters the names of the persons who caused them to be engraved. Occasionally the inscription contains the words of some sacred or votive formula; scarcely ever an explanation of the subject represented,

See Fr. de Ficoroni, Gemmæ antiquæ literate. Rom. 1757. 4.-Particular gems were considered as peculiarly appropriate to certain gods; e. g. representations of Bacchus were specially common on the Amethyst having the color of wine; Neptune and the nymphs were executed in Aquamarine having the greenish color of water.-In Plate V. fig. 5, and 6, we have specimens of whole figures engraved on gems. In fig. 5, Dædalus is seen sitting on a block and fabricating a wing which rests on a tripod; it is curious that he seems to be working with a mallet. In fig. 6, Cupid is sitting on a shell, and playing with a butterfly; the oval ring in the fig. shows the actual size of the beautiful gem here exhibited. This may be an allegerical device, as the butterfly was regarded by the ancients as an emblem of the soul. Winckelmann gives an antique, in which a philosopher is looking contemplatively upon a human skull with a butterfly on the crown of it, supposed to represent Plato meditating on the immortality of the soul. So in the gem here exhibited, the artist may have designed to intimate the influence of love upon the soul, or to remind the observer of the allegory of Eros and Psyche (cf. P. III. $50).—In figs. 7, and 8, we have a Hermes and a Hermeracles, as engraved on gems. In fig. 1, Is a mythological representation; Harpocrates, the god of silence, sits on a lotus flower, holding in his left hand a scourge (flagellum), instead of the horn of plenty, which more commonly he holds, and placing the fore finger of his right hand upon his lips; on one side of him is the sun, and the moon on the other; on his head he has a vessel of some sort instead of a crown.

$199. The history of this art has its different periods, and principal changes and characteristics in reference to origin, progress and decline, in common with sculpture or image-work in general. Like sculpture, it depends muck on design; its advancement is effected by the same causes as that of sculpture; so also is its decline; its progress, likewise, presents the same varieties of style, the rude, the more cultivated, and the elegant. It is probable, that soon after the discovery of precious stones men began to etch upon them, at first, perhaps mere characters or simple signs. The Bible gives the earliest notices of the art, in the precious stones of the Ephod and the Breast-plate of Aaron, on which were inscribed the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. Gems and precious stones are spoken of at a still earlier period.

Cf. § 195. 3.-See Gen. ii. 12. Job. xxviii. 6. 16. 19. Comp. Lev. xxvi, 1. — J. J. Bellermann, Die Urim und Thummim, die ältestens Gemmen. Berl. 1824. 8.

$200. The Israelites without doubt derived the art from the Egyptians, among whom it had been long known, and had been promoted by their superstitious ideas respecting the wonderful efficacy of such stones in the preservation of health. In this view they were marked with hieroglyphic characters, and used as talismans, or amulets.

la. Many of these stones yet exist, especially of a convex form like that of the beetle, termed Scarabæi (zágasos); however, many of them were wrought at a later period, after the time of Christ, to which more recent class belong also those called by the name of Abraxas.

2. The word Abraxas, being interpreted according to the numerical force of its corresponding Greek letters, a Boa aç, signifies 365, the number of days in the year. It is said to have been fabricated by Basilides, who maintained that there were so many heavens; or by some one of the sect called Gnostics. The engraved stones designated by this name are supposed to have proceeded from the followers of this sect and to have been designed as a sort of amulets or talismans. Great numbers of them are preserved in the cabinets of Europe.

Meatfaucon divides the gems called Abraxas into seven classes; 1. those with the head of a cock usually joined to a human trunk with the legs ending in two serpents; 2. those with the head or body of a lion, having often the inscription Mithras; 3, those having the inscription or the figure Serapis; 4. those having Anubis, or scarabæi, serpents, or sphinxes; 5. those having human figures with or without wings; 6. those having inscriptions without figures; 7. those having unusual or monstrous figures. The term Abraxas, sometimes written Abrasax, is found only on a few. A specimen of the first class is given in our illustrations, Plate V. fig. 2. The image engraved has the body and arms of a man; in the right hand is held a round shield; in the left the flagellum; the head is that of a cock with a crest, and the legs assume the form of serpents. It bears the inscription I AW, tan, which is commonly found on these stones, on the shield or on some other part; this may be intended to correspond to the Hebrew of Jehovah (see Plate I a, in fig. E, line b); the word Adonai is found on some of these stones. A very singular specimen is given in Walsh, on Coins &c. p. 68. as cited § 213. The mystic word ABPACAAABPA is supposed to have come from the same sect. An amulet was formed by writing these letters in such a way that they should make an inverted cone or triangle with

the whole word at the base and the letter A at the apex; which was done by beginning the word one place farther to the right in each successive line and also cutting off at each time one letter from the end. This was employed as a charm for the cure of a fever.

See Montfaucon, L'Antiquité expliquée. tome 11. p. 353 (part 2. livre iii.) — Joa. Macarü, Abraxas s. Apistopistus; antiquaria disquisitio de Gemmis Basilidianis. Antv. 1657. 4.-P. C. Jablonsky, De Nominis Abraxas vera significatione, in the Miscell. Lips. Nov. (Bd. 7. Th. 1.) -J. J. Bellermann, über die Gemmen mit dem Abraxas-bilde, und über die Scarabæen-Gemmen. Berl. 1817. 8.

3. The most fanciful and superstitious notions have prevailed respecting the marvelous powers of gems. Fabulous accounts of the origin of different stones were invented by the ancients. Particular gems were imagined to hold peculiar relations to certain planets, constellations, and months of the year. The gem appropriate for a particular month was worn as an amulet during the month, and was supposed to exert a mysterious control in reference to beauty, health, riches, honor, and all good fortune; as e. g. a sapphire for April, an agate for May, and an emerald for June. Different gems were also supposed to possess specific powers; e. g. the emerald was an antidote to poison, and a preventive of melancholy; the amethyst was a security against intoxication, if worn as an amulet or used as a drinking-cup; the ruby or spinelle was a promoter of joy and a foe to all bad dreams. Such notions were cherished also among the Arabians and eastern nations; and were embraced in Europe in the middle ages. Indeed, to understand the virtues of gems was esteemed an important part of natural philosophy, and treatises were written on the subject (cf. P. II. § 268). Marbodus, a monk of the 12th century, who was made bishop of Rennes, wrote a poem (De gemmis) setting forth, in Latin verse, the miraculous efficacy of precious stones. Cf. Warton's Hist. Eng. Poetry. Lond. 1824. 2d vol. p. 214. Twelve gems were appropriated as symbolical of the twelve Apostles, and called "The Apostle gems;" the hint having been drawn from the twelve gems representing the twelve tribes on Aaron's breast-plate, and from the figurative language of the Apocalypse of John (Rev. xxi. 14, 19, 20), in which the walls of the new Jerusalem are represented as having twelve foundations of precious stones, inscribed with the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb.

4. We may mention here a class of engraved stones, sometimes called Socratic, having heads of various animals connected with the form or feet of a cock, or other devices, among which is found a head resembling Socrates.

See Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, &c. vol. 11. p. 399.-Joa. Chiflctii Socrates, s. de Gemmis ejus imagine cælatis Judicium. Antv. 1662. 4.-Middleton's Antiq. Tab. xxi. sect. 10. cf. Doddridge, Family Expositor. Note on Rev. 1v. 7. (p. 913. Am. Ed. Amherst, 1833.)

$201. Among the Egyptians, lithoglyphy, like the other plastic arts, and on account of the same hindrances (§ 169), never reached any distinguished excellence or perfection. Stones and gems, adorned with figures in relief, were much less common among them than among the Greeks and Romans, with whom a greater degree of luxury in general favored the exercise of this art in particular.

"The ancients appear to have obtained the emerald from Egypt. Cailliaud has succeeded in finding the old emerald mines in the the Theban deserts on the Arabian Gulf. He mentions having found subterranean mines capable of allowing four hundred men to work; he likewise found tools, ropes, lamps and other utensils."

$202. Among the Ethiopians and Persians, and other nations of Asia and Africa, this art must have been known in very ancient times, because their sculptured stones are mentioned by the ancient Greek and Roman writers. Persian gems are still in existence of various kinds. But the Etrurians were more remarkable. They either borrowed the art from the Egyptians, or very soon became imitators of the Egyptian manner and like them wrought gems in the form of the scarabæus or beetle. They carried their skill in execution much further, but not to the point of Grecian excellence. We probably have remaining but few sculptured gems, really Etruscan most of those so called are probably of Grecian origin; at least the evidence that they are Tuscan is very unsatisfactory.

§ 203. Whether the Greeks borrowed this art from Egypt cannot be decided any more certainly than the exact time when they became acquainted with it. That it existed in Egypt at an earlier period is unquestionable; but that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed it from that country by no means follows. Probably it arose among them at the same time with sculpture. It seems to have been known in the time of the Trojan war, although Pliny expresses doubt on the