age witnessed the full glory and decline of the art. Apelles is said to have united the excellences which had been separately exhibited in his predecessors. His Venus Anadyomene, which was long" afterwards purchased by Augustus for one hundred talents, or £20,000 sterling, was esteemed the most faultless creation of the Grecian pencil, the most perfect example of that simple yet unapproachable grace of expression, of symmetry of form, and exquisite finish, in which may be summed up the distinctive beauties of his genius." Protogenes of Rhodes, a contemporary of Apelles, was next to him in merit. Nicias of Athens was a reputable painter. Later were Nicomachus, Pasius, and others, with whom the art began to decline.

Levesque, Sur les progres successifs de la peinture chez les Grecs; Mem. de l'Institut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. 1. p. 374.-Respecting the principal artists above named, and their works; Battiger, Ideen zur Archæologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1811. 8.-Gedoyn & De Caylus, on Polyguotus, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vi. 445, & XXVII. 34.-Brottier, on a painting of Protogenes, Mem. Acad. Inser, XLV1, 463.—Arnauld, La vie et les ouvrages d'Apelle, in the same Mem. &c. XLIX. 200.-C. de Caylus, La Venus d'Apelles dite Anadyomene, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. xxx. 442, with a plate drawn from a figure in bronze.-Quatr. de Quincy, Sur de defi d'Apelles et de Protogenes, Mem. de l'Institut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. v. p. 300, with curious plates. Cf. Plin. xxxv. 10.-A famous painting of Zeuxis is described in the Zeus of Lu

cian.

2. Respecting the comparative number of paintings and statues in Greece, the following statement is in point. "Pausanias mentions the names of one hundred and sixty-nine sculptors, and only fifteen painters; while after three centuries of spoliation he found in Greece three thousand statues, not one of them a copy, he describes only one hundred and thirty-one paintings." — It may be also worthy of remark, that the Greeks preferred busts to portraits, and this branch of painting does not seem to have been so much cultivated as others."While Pausanias enumerates eighty-eight masterpieces of history, he mentions only half the number of portraits, which he had seen in his travels through Greece in the second century."

See Memes, p. 120, ss.-Cf. M. Heyne, Sur les causes de la perfection à laquelle l'art parvint chez les Grecs, et sur les epoques qu'il paroit avoit eu chez ce peuple; in Winckelmann's Histoire, &c.

223. In Italy painting was early cultivated. Evidence of its advancement is given by those rich vases, already mentioned (§ 173), which are generally termed Etruscan, but are probably the work chiefly of Grecian artists. It may be remarked, that the color which fills up the figures, mostly red or black, was the proper ground color of these vessels, and that the color of the surrounding space was laid on afterwards. It is possible that these paintings are copied from larger pictures of the best Greek masters, and so may furnish us some means of judging of the conceptions and devices of those artists.

See Battiger's Griech. Vasengemälde.-J. Christie's Disquisitions on the Painted Greek Vases.-Lanzi, D. Vasi dipinti. Firenze, 1805.—Cf. Mem. de l'Institut, Classe d'Lit. et Hist. Anc. "sur un Vase peint apporte de Sicile," vol. 111. p 38. with a plate.

224. At Rome also, in early times, there were various paintings. But after the subjugation of the Grecian territories they were more numerous and more valuable. The Romans, however, did not labor to signalize themselves in this art, but were contented with possessing the best pieces of Grecian painters, some of whom resided at Rome, particularly under the first emperors. Yet Pliny has recorded the names of several native artists, as Pacuvius, Fabius, Turpilius, and Quintus Pedius.

Pacuvius, known also as a tragic poet (cf. P. I1. § 353), was one of the first Romans distinguished as a painter. A piece which he executed for the temple of Hercules, in the Forum Boarian, was particularly celebrated. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 4.-Comte de Caylus, Sur les princes, qui ont cultive les arts, (Roman emperors and others,) Mem. Acad. Inser. xxix. 160.Cf. Life of Mich. Angelo, in the Library of Useful Knowledge.

$ 225. But painting, like the sister arts, ere long declined and finally became almost extinct, from various causes; the irruptions of the northern tribes, the dominions of the Goths and Lombards, the controversy of the Iconoclasts in the eighth century, the general corruption of taste, and the general want of knowledge and refinement. The art was not wholly lost, but the uses made of it, and the performances actually produced by it, were such as tended only to bring it into greater neglect.

See Fiorillo's Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste. Cf. § 183.

$226. After the revival of the arts, much curiosity was awakened respecting the monuments of ancient painting. A considerable number, which were concealed in ruined buildings, tombs, and the like, or had remained unnoticed, were sought out; and by means of plates and copies, a knowledge of them was communicated to amateurs of the art.

1 u. Among these monuments are the pictures found on the pyramid of C. Cestius, of the time of Augustus; some paintings on the walls of the palace and baths of Titus, of which some are preserved in the Escurial at Madrid; some antique paintings preserved at Rome, in the palaces Massimi and Barberini, and particularly the piece called the Aldobrandine festival, formerly in the Villa Aldobrandini, now in the pope's collection. We may mention, as among the most remarkable, the pictures found in the tomb of the Nasos in the year 1675. Many remains of ancient painting were discovered at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ, which are still preserved in the museum at Portici. They are above a thousand in number, most of them upon dry plaster or chalk, but some upon a moist ground, or proper fresco-paintings. Many of them, by being exposed to the light and air, lost their colors. Others were mutilated and injured in detaching them from the walls, before a safe and successful method was discovered.

Respecting the tomb of Cestius, see Descrizione di Romana Anticha, con le Autorità di Panvinio, Nordini, &c. Rom. 1697.- Winckelmann, Histoire &c. livre iv. ch. 8. § 13. Note.Johnson's Phil. of Travel. p. 178. cited §190.1. -L'Abbe Rive, Hist. Crit. de la Pyram. de C. Cestius. Par. 1790.- A view of this tomb is given in our Plate XV. fig. 3. — For an explanation of the Aldobrandine festival, see Battiger's archäologische Ausdeutung &c. Dresd.1810. 4. -Winckelmann, Histoire &c. livre iv. ch. 8. § 8. Of the pictures in the tomb of the Nasos, with others, plates were published in Bartoli and Bellori, Picturæ antiquæ Cryptarum Romanarum et sepulchri Nasonum. Rom. 1738. (it. 1750, 1791.) fol. Cf. Gravi Thes. Ant. Rom. tome x11. p. 1021, and Winckelmann, Histoire, &c. livre iv. ch. 10. § 8. liv. vi. ch. 6. § 13. On the paintings discovered at Herculaneum, see the stately work entitled Le Antichita di Ercolano, cited 243. 2. Five volumes of it relate more particularly to the paintings: viz. vols. 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th and 7th, which bear the title of Le Pitture antiche d'Ercolano. On the monuments of ancient painting, see also Winckelmann's Histoire &c. livre iv. ch. 8. There are some notices of paintings found at Pompeii, in the work styled Pompeii, republished from the English edit. Bost. 1833. 12. with wood-cuts.

2u. It will be proper to mention here other works that treat of the painting of the ancients.

Franc. Junii de Pictura Veterum Libri. III. Roterod. 1694. fol. in Germ. Transl. Breslau. 1777. 8.-Mr. Durand, Histoire de la peinture ancienne, extraite de l'histoire naturelle de Pline. Lond. 1725. fol. - Geo. Trumbull's Treatise on Ancient Painting. Lond. 1740. fol. with 50 engravings of ancient paintings. - History of painting among the Greeks, in J. J. Rambach, Versuch einer pragmatischer Litterärhistorie. Halle, 1770. 8. - Reim, über die Malerei der Alten. Berl. 1787.; cf. Winckelmann, Histoire de l'Art. (Paris, 1803. tome 11. 2eP. p. 69).-C. A. Bættiger's Ideen zur Archäologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1811. 8. — J. J. Grund, Malerei der Griechen. Dresd. 1810. 2 vols. 8.-F. Kuegler, Handbuch der Geschichte des Malerie von Constantine dem Grossen &c. Berl. 1837. 2 vols. 8. J. G. Legrand, cited § 243. 1. Croze-Magnan, Discours Historique sur la Peinture &c. belonging to the Muse e Francaise, cited §191.- Lanzi's Geschichte der Malerei ; transl. by A. Wagner, with additions by Quandt. 1833. Ramdohr, über Malerei und Bildhauerei in Rom. Lpz. 1799. 3 vols. 8. There is a valuable but rare work, from the zeal of Count Caylus, Recueil des peintures antiques imitées fidèlement pour les couleurs et pour le dessein, d'apres les dessseins colories faits par P. S. Bartoli. Paris, 1757. (improved, 1784.) fol. - Raoul-Rochette, Peintures Antiques Inedits, precedees de Recherches sur l'Emploi de la Peintures dans le decoration des Edifices sacrees et publics chez les Grecs et chez les Romains. Par.1836. fol. illustrated by plates; a Supplement to his Monum. Ined. cited $191. 4. -See Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Art. Mahlerey.

IV-Architecture.

227. Architecture may be contemplated in two different points of view, as a mechanic art, or as a fine art. In the latter view it is to be considered here; that is, so far as the general rules of taste are applicable to it; so far as it has not mere utility, comfort, or durability, but rather beauty and pleasure, for its object. Order, symmetry, noble simplicity, fair proportions and agreeable forms, are the chief peculiarities that are requisite to render a building a work of taste; and these are the points to which the artist and the observer must turn their attention.

lu. In its origin architecture was only a mechanic art, and scarcely deserved that name. It commenced in the first human society, as men must have immediately felt the need of defence against the heat of the sun, the violence of storms, and the attacks of wild beasts. The dwellings of men, after they were dispersed and lived in an unsettled state, were at first, it is likely, caves and clefts of rocks; and then huts and cabins, rudely constructed, according to the nature of the climate and the genius of the occupants, of reed, cane, boughs, bark, mud, clay, and the like.

2u. The writings of Moses (Gen. iv. 17. xi. 4.) present the earliest notices of architecture in the residence of Cain, and the tower of Babel.

§ 228. There are three grand causes of structure and form in architecture; three leading principles, which not only originated the primeval elements of design, but which to a great degree have governed all the subsequent combinations of these. This influence extends not merely to the essentials of stability, equilibrium, and strength, but has suggested the system of ornament. These master dispositions are, first, the purpose; secondly, the material of architecture; and thirdly, the climate."

Climate will necessarily exert some influence on architecture; chiefly, however, upon the external arrangements. According to the latitude of the situa tion, buildings will be contrived to admit or exclude the sun, to give shelter from biting cold, or to secure against scorching heat, or merely to yield shade, without immediate reference to either extreme. All these, however, will not affect the internal harmonies or properties of the constituent parts. Climate, therefore, is only modifying, not creative, as the two other causes; it may suggest composition, but hardly design.

$229. "The materials employed in architecture have influenced its forms and character; not only in the peculiar styles adopted in different countries; but likewise in the general principles of the science. The choice of materials in the first instance is determined by the resources of the particular country; but the arrangement of the materials must be, in some measure, determined by laws which are universal, and over which taste and ingenuity can exert only a limited control. Since a mass of stone is heavier in all positions, and weaker in most positions, than timber of equal dimensions, it is obvious the whole structure, that is, the system of architecture, will be modified as the one or the other material is employed. In wooden erections, the supporting members may be much fewer and less massive than in structures of stone; because, in the former, the horizontal or supported parts are both lighter, and will carry an incumbent weight-as a roof-over a much wider interval than in the latter. It is apparent, also, even for the ordinary purposes of stability, that, in constructing edifices of stone, whether of the perpendicular or horizontal members, the dimensions would be greater than in elevations of wood; and in the case of columnar structures, that the altitude, in proportion to the diameter, would be far less in stone than in timber supports. Hence the two grand characteristics of a massive or solemn, and a light or airy, architecture. Hence, also, when genius and taste had begun to consider the arrangements of necessity and use in the relations of effect and beauty, new combinations would be attempted, which approached to one or other of these leading divis

ions. It must, however, be obvious, that the field of these experiments is narrowed by the very principles on which they would be first suggested. In the art we are now considering, the human agent has less power over the inertness of matter than in any other. Imagination comes in contact with reality at every step."

1. In early times, wood seems to have been the most common material. But the use of this in building presupposes the invention of various instruments and tools, which probably were made of stone, earlier than of metal ($10). Edifices of stone were of later origin, as the construction of such demands a greater advance in knowledge. We learn from Moses (Ex. i. 14. v. 7-14), that in his times burnt bricks were common in Egypt. How early hewn stone, mortar, and gypsum, were employed in building, cannot be determined. Several auxiliaries seem evidently prerequisite; as, for example, machines for collecting the materials, and for working metals, especially in iron. In Egypt, a country destitute of wood, appears to have been the earliest and most frequent use of stone, which the people could easily transport upon their canals, from inexhaustible quarries.

2. In Plate I. of our illustrations, figures 7, and 8, are seen several of the tools employed by the ancients in architecture and in the mechanic arts; they are given by Montfaucon (vol. 111. pl.187, 189) as taken from ancient monuments, in part from the tomb of Cossutius. Among them are the saw,serra; the hammer and mallet, tudes, malleus; the hatchet or adze, scalprum,ascia; the square, norma; ;the rule and compass, regula et circinus; the plumb-line, amussis, or perpendiculum; the instrument for cutting lines, or carving, celum, scalper; a sort of gimlet or piercer, terebra; and other tools whose use is not obvious, as one with a spear-head and a star, cuspis stellifer, and another consisting of a handle, capulus, and a sort of notched wheel, rotula serrata, perhaps designed for marking, by its revolution, equidistant points or dots.

3. The influence of the material in modifying the style of architecture is strikingly exhibited, when we contrast the ancient structures reared in Egypt with those of Palestine and Syria. We see the heavy and massive style in those mysterious edifices, still standing as landmarks between known and unknown time. "In the ponderous members of these solemn piles, the narrowness of the intervals, the crowded pillars, the massive base, and the lessened perpendicular, is found every principle previously assumed as characteristic of that architecture, which would be governed by necessity before the sensation of beauty had been felt, or at least methodized. In that region of Asia, already noticed as the scene of the earliest recorded labors of the art, wood was abundant. From the descriptions of Holy Writ we accordingly find, that this material was much employed even in their most sacred and important buildings. Thus, though few details capable of giving any just architectural notions, are preserved of Solomon's Temple, it is yet plain, that cedar wood was the chief material both for roofs and columns, that is, both for supported and supporting members. Hence, the temples of Palestine, and of Syria generally, by which we understand the Asia of the Old Testament, already described, were more spacious, but less durable, than those of Egypt, and with fewer upright Supports. Of this, a singularly striking proof occurs in the catastrophe of the House of Dagon, when Samson, by overturning only two columns, brought down the whole fabric. In an edifice constructed on the plan of the Egyptian temple, where pillar stands crowded behind pillar, in range beyond range, to give support to the ponderous architrave and marble roof, the overturning of two of these columns would produce but a very partial disintegration." - It is obvious, that the style may have a different modification, when different materials are combined in the same structure, as was evidently the case in the buildings of Persepolis. The marble columns were connected by cross-beams of wood, and they probably supported a roof of light structure; and they are accordingly loftier, further apart, and fewer in number, than in Egyptian buildings. (Memes, p. 233, ss.)

§ 230. The purpose of a building, or use for which it was designed, would necessarily, in an early stage of art as well as in a later, in a great measure determine both the magnitude and the form. The purpose or design of structure is the foundation of a division of Architecture into three general kinds, or grand branches, Civil, Military, and Naval. The two latter, which treat of ships, castles, towers, forts, and the like, come not into consideration among the fine arts. The former is subdivided according to its various purposes into Sacred, Monumental, Municipal, and Domestic.

man.

Sacred architecture appears among the earliest efforts of the present race of "The first impress of his existence left upon the soil, yet moist from the waters of the deluge, was the erection of an altar; and the noblest evidence of his most accomplished skill has been a temple."

Monumental architecture is also of very early origin. Pillars of stone and mounds of earth are the primitive records both of life and death. Mounds or barrows have been used for monumental purposes throughout the globe. The pyramids of Egypt and India may be considered as mounds of higher art and more durable materials. Columns and triumphal arches are a species of monumental structures.

Under the head of Municipal architecture may be included all public buildings more especially connected with the civil and social affairs of men; as for example, halls of legislation and justice, baths, theatres, and the like. Domestic architecture refers particularly in the dwellings of individuals, whether palaces, manors, villas, or common houses.

231. It was in the east, and particularly in Egypt, that architec