ture first reached any considerable improvement, and this was in respect of solidity and grandeur rather than beauty. The Egyptians in their most celebrated works of this art seem to have intended to awaken the wonder of the latest posterity, rather than to gratify the taste of the connoisseur. Their most famous structure was the Labyrinth of extraordinary extent, situated near lake Moeris, the work of twelve Egyptian kings. Their pyramids and obelisks too, which were probably designed both for monumental erections and for display, are ever remarkable for grandeur and solidity.

1. The temples of the Egyptians should be noticed as among their remarkable structures. One of the most ancient and celebrated is the Memnonium at Thebes. It is represented as having been about 200 feet wide and 600 feet long; with an extensive propylæon, of which above 200 feet are still observed. In this is a colossal statue of Osymandyas, which is sometimes confounded with the vocal statue of Memnon, but must be distinguished from it. Cf. §169.2. - Another celebrated temple, called the finest in Egypt, is that at Denderah; this however belongs to a later period, being ascribed by Belzoni to the age of the first Ptolemy. Monolithal temples are mentioned among the Egyptian structures. One of great size, and consisting of a single mass of stone, is described by Herodotus as having been hewn out of the solid rock and transported from Elephantis to Sais, and placed near the temple of Neith, which was itself another very celebrated edifice. Another monolithic temple is found at Antropolis.

Quatrimere de Quincy, De l'Architecture Egyptienne. Par. 1803. 4. with 18 plates. Cf. Re view of it in the Amer. Quarterly, vol. v. p. 1.-Lenormant, Museé des Antiquites Egyptiennes, ou Recueil des Monum. Egypt. Architecture, Statuaire, &c. Begun Par. 1836. fol. Plates with explanatory text.-Grobert, Description des Pyramids de Ghizé. Par. 1800. (Transl. into German, Gera, 1808.)-Clarke, Travels in Greece, Egypt, &c.-Belzoni, Narrative of the recent operations and discoveries within the pyramids, temples, &c. in Egypt and Nubia. Lond. 1820.-Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. XVI. 8; XVII. 166; XIX. 195, 394.-Buckingham's Lectures, N. York Observer, Oct. 27, 1838.-Zoega, De origine et usu obeliscorum. Rome, 1797. fol. - See also references given P. V. § 177. For a view of some obelisks, see Montfaucon, Antiq. Expliq. vol. 1. pl. exliii.; and Denon, as cited 238. A view of some on a smaller scale is given in our Plate VII. figs. 15, 14, 10. This plate exhibits the comparative height and magnitude of various celebrated structures, both ancient and modern.-In Plate VI a. figs. a,b,c, are seen specimens of Egyptian columns, which may show the massiveness of style prevalent in Egyptian edifices. Fig. a represents a column of a tomb at Silsilis; as given in Denon's plate xliii. (as cited § 238), it appears still more massy. On Egyptian pillars see farther remarks, 238. 3.-For a view of a massy Egyptian door-way, see our Plate XXV. fig. c.—On Egyptian art in general, consult especially Mueller's Archeologie, cited § 32. 4.

It may be proper to advert to the fact, that excavations in the pyramids are now going on (1838), and that several chambers have been opened without discovering any thing; in one, however, was found a cartouch of hieroglyphics, i. e. a proper name in the hieroglyphical alphabet. Cf. P. III. § 96. 3.

2. It is an interesting fact, that architectural remains are found in the regions of central America, which bear a very striking resemblance to those of Egypt. These are said to be the monumental relics of a great nation, whose existence had become, at the time of the Spanish conquest, a matter of vague record under the name of "giants and wandering masons.' They are called Tultecan monuments. Among these remains are pyramids, some of them said to be larger than those of Egypt. The pyramid at Cholula resembles the tower of Babel as described by Herodotus. There are also temples and other structures, the most remarkable being at the city of Palenque, where are likewise bas-reliefs and other sculptured monuments.

Del Rio, Ruins of an Ancient City, lately discovered in Guatimala. Lond. 1822. 4.-Bullock's Travels in Mexico.-Nebel's Archæological Voyage. Par. 1835.-Dupaix, Antiquités Mexicaines. Par. 1836. fol. The author was at the head of a Commission sent out by the Spanish government for the purpose of investigating the subject.-Cf. Amer. Bib. Repository, No. XXVII. July, 1837, p. 219.-Also the Republication of Quarterly and other Reviews. Oct. 1836, p. 17, 137.

3. We may properly here advert to the Cyclopean architecture. In Greece and Italy there are celebrated remains of vast rock-built walls and fortresses, which are called Cyclopean, because said to have been built by the Cyclops. In the regions of America above mentioned there are structures which very much resemble them, called by the natives, granaries of the giants. The most celebrated of these remains in Greece are at Tiryns and Mycena. They

consist, in both places, of a wall or fortification, inclosing the summit of a nearly insulated rock, the Acropolis, in the language of the later Greeks; the enclosure of which was at once a palace, a fortress, and a temple They are composed of large blocks of unhewn stone; the blocks are generally polygonal and well fitted to each other. At Tiryns the enclosure is about 220 yards in length and 60 in breadth. At Mycene the enclosure is 300 yards by 200; in the eastern side a remarkable gateway still exists, called the Gate of Lions, from two lions rudely sculptured over the lintel.

W. Gell, Argolis, or Itinerary of Greece. Lond. 1807. 4, with plates.-E. D. Clarke, Travels in Egypt, Greece, &c. Lond. 1824. 10 vols. 8.-Pompeii, p. 64. as cited § 226. 1.-W. Hamil ton, Fortresses of ancient Greece, in the Archeologia, (cited § 242. 3), vol. xv. p. 315.-Class. Jour. vol. v. p. 262.

232. In Asia Minor architecture must have made considerable advances by the time of Homer. Of this there is evidence from the descriptions he gives of buildings in both his epic poems, even if we allow much for poetic ornament and exaggeration. As examples, notice the description of the palace of Priam at Troy (a), and of Paris (b), and especially the palace of Alcinous, king of Phæacia(c), and that of Ulysses in several passages of the Odyssey. The manner also in which Homer, in these poems and in the hymns, speaks of temples, seems to presuppose a construction of such edifices by no means rude.

(a) Il. vi. 243.—(b) Il. vi. 313.—(e) Odyss. vii. 85.-On the condition of domestic architecture as exhibited in the Iliad and Odyssey, see Memes, p. 252, as before cited § 169.-Also Salher, Etat de l'Architecture au temps d'Homere, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvii. 19.-Cf. Mueller's Hist. and Ant. of Doric Race, bk. iv. ch. i.

$233. Yet the art was very far from the perfection, which it afterwards attained among the Greeks. With them, its most flourishing period may be dated from about the middle of the fifth century before Christ. During about a century succeeding this date, or between the time of Pericles and Alexander, there were erected in Greece, and particularly at Athens, a vast number of superb edifices of various kinds; temples, palaces, theatres, gymnasia, porticos, &c. Religion, policy, emulation, luxury, all united to encourage and advance architecture, which the Greeks were the first to raise fully to the rank of a fine art. It was however chiefly upon public buildings that they bestowed their care. Private dwellings, even those of the more celebrated personages, and in the most flourishing period of the art, were comparatively simple and free from ornaments.

For a historical view of Grecian architecture, consult Memes, p. 248.-New Edinb. Encyclop. Art. Ciel Architecture.-Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst, and Stieglitz; both cited 6243. 4.-On the origin of Grecian architecture, comp. Chateaubriand, Travels in Greece, &c. translated by F. Schoberl (p. 354.) Am. edit. N. Yk. 1814.

$234. The countless multitude of divinities occasioned an immense demand for temples; and those consecrated to a particular deity were, both in number and magnificence, proportionate to his supposed dignity and importance. These structures were, in general, not designed to receive within them assemblies of worshipers, but to form as it were habitations and memorials of their appropriate gods. Hence they were often small in size. They were usually raised so as to be entered by an ascent of steps, ornamented with statues, and with pillars erected completely around them, or at least in their front.

lu. The porch or space in front was called лgóvaos. In the Dorian temples, the doors were brought to a point at the top, and generally, it was by these openings alone that light was admitted; they were commonly lighted also by lamps within. The interior was adorned, on the covering and on the walls, with the ornaments both of architecture and sculpture.

Quatr. de Quincy, sur la maniere dont etoient eclaires les temples des Grecs et des Romains, Mem. de l'Institut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. 1. p. 166.

2. The temple was frequently surrounded by an enclosed court (regiẞodos), which often included a grove, statues, and buildings appertaining to the temple. The body of the temple was usually quadrangular, oblong, and enclosed by walls; this was the temple in the strict sense; and was called by the Greeks the vios; by the Romans the cella. The number and disposition of the pillars which were employed to adorn it, gave occasion for the architectural terms used to designate different kinds of temples. Vitruvius, in this way, discriminates seven kinds.

In our Plate XVI, are given plans to represent these kinds. The first, is the Temple with Ante (1), which has only square columns or pilasters on the sides, with two square columns or pilasters in front, one at each angle, and two round columns between them; as in fig. d in the Plate.The second, the Prostyle (2), having a row of columns in the front, and only in front; as in fig. e. Third, the Amphiprostyle (3), having columns at both ends; as in fig. f. — Fourth, the Peripteral (4), having a single row of columns extending wholly around the building; as in fig. a; and also in fig. h, in which the cell and its surrounding colonnade is circular. If the walls of the cell were thrown back so as to fill the intercolumniations, the temple was called Pseudo-peripteral. Fifth, the Dipteral (5), having a double range of pillars around the whole cell; as in fi. c. - Sixth, the Pseudo-dipteral (6), having one row of pillars only, these pillars being at the same distance from the cell as in Dipteral temples, and the inner row of pillars being omitted. Seventh, the Hypethral (7), was so named because the temple was open to the sky; it was also marked by the number of its columns, being the largest and most magnificent kind of temple; it was dipteral, having a double row around it, and amphiprostyle, having ten pillars besides at each end; it has also a range of columns within the cell, as in fig. b.-There was another variety, termed Monopteral (8), which consisted of a circular colonnade, without a cell, but with an altar in the centre; as in fig. g. —— Temples were also designated according to the nearness of their columns to each other; being called Pycnostyle (a), when the columns were placed in the closest order allowed, i. e. one diameter and a half apart; Systyle (b), when they were two diameters apart; Eustyle (e), when two diameters and a quarter; Diastyle (d), when three diameters; and Aræostyle (e) when the interval was greater.

(1) Ανταίος(?). (2) Πρόστυλος. (3) 3 Αμφιπρόστυλος. (4) Περίπτερος. (5) Δια πτερος. (6) Ψευδοδίπτερος. (7) Υπαίθρος. (8) Μονόπτερος. (a) Пuzvóστυλος. (δ) Σύστυλος. (ε) Εύστυλος. (α) Διάστυλος. (ε) Αραιόστυλος.

See Vitruvius, On the Temples and Intercoluminations of the Ancients. Lond. 1794. 8. with plates. J. Bigelow, Elements of Technology. Bost. 1829. 8.- – Pompeii, p.104. as cited § 226.1.

1

3. Among the temples most celebrated for their extent and magnificence were the following; that of Diana at Ephesus; those of Apollo at Delphi and Miletus; those of Jupiter at Athens and Olympia; and that of Minerva, called the Parthenon, at Athens. The temples at Agrigentum in Sicily were celebrated; especially that of Jupiter, called also the temple of the Giants, a colossal building now completely in ruins. The dimensions of the temple of Diana of Ephesus were 425 feet by 220; those of Jupiter at Athens, 354 feet by 171; and those of Apollo Didymæus, 303 by 164.

L'Abbe May, Temples anciens et modernes. Par. 1774. 2 vols. 8.-Stieglitz, as cited § 243. 4. -Winckelmann, Observations sur le temple de Girgenti; in the Histoire, &c. cited § 32. 4. vol. n.-Hirt. Beschreibung des Temple der Diana zu Ephesus. Berl. 1809. 4.-Arundell's Seven Churches of Asia (containing remarks on the temple of Diana).-Falconer, Pliny's account of Diana's temple, &c. in the Archæologia (as cited 242. 3), vol. x1. p. 1. Comte de Caylus, La Diana d'Ephese et son temple, in the Mem. Acad. Inser. vol. xxx. 428.-For comparative view of the Parthenon, Temple of Giants, and other structures, see Plate VII. fig. 17, 18, &c. See Plate XVI. For a notice of existing Greek temples, see New Edinb. Encycl. article Civil Architecture. Also Stuart's Dictionary (Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8), under the words Temple, Agrigentum, &c.-Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vii. 301; xiv. 514. Consult the references below, 243.

235. The ancient theatres were structures of vast extent, sometimes wholly built of marble. They had on one side the form of a semicircle with its ends somewhat prolonged, and on the other side the ends were united by a building passing directly across from one to the other. The Greek theatre was divided into three principal parts. One was the stage or scene (oz) in the part extending across the semicircle; this was appropriated to the actors. A second was the part occupied by the spectators, who sat in the concentric rows (dia, ordines) around the semicircle; this part strictly speaking was the theatre (9iarov, called also zotor, cavea). The third was between these two, and called the orchestra (gorça), being the part assigned to the choir of mimes, singers, and dancers.

1u. The seats for spectators rose behind each other in regular succession; they were often however divided into two or three compartments, according to the size of the building, by means of wide passages (daluara, præcinctiones) running the whole length of the seats and concentric with them. There were likewise openings or stair-ways (zinazes) passing like radii to the semicircle, transversely to the seats. These free spaces facilitated the distribution of the audience. The several portions or compartments of seats between them (zɛozidɛç) resembled wedges in shape, and were called cunei by the Romans. The magistrates and distinguished persons took the lowest seats, in the portion (called Bovisvtizor) nearest the stage. The successive rows of seats were, by a definite arrangement, appropriated to other citizens, and were often designated by a specific name; e. g. a certain part was assigned to youth and called prizor. A particular place was also reserved for strangers. Outside of the whole part occupied by the spectators there was usually a portico.

2. The Greeks usually constructed their theatres on the side of a hill; and when the nature of the place allowed, as at Chæronea, Argos, and other places, many of the seats were cut out of the solid rock. The principal instances now known of theatres built on a plain are those of Mantinea and Megalopolis. The size of the Grecian theatres is sometimes very great. It is asserted that the theatre of Bacchus at Athens was capable of containing 30,000 persons. The theatre at Epidaurus is 366 feet in diameter; those at Argos and Sparta were about 500.—Cf. P. IV. § 89, 238.

3. The edifices called Odea, designed for the exhibitions (§ 65) of musicians, poets, and artists, were constructed in a manner similar to theatres. The most celebrated was that of Pericles (28ɛior) at Athens.

A plan of a Greek theatre, from Vitruvius, is given in Plate VI. fig. 1.-For a more full description of Greek theatres, see Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture.-Anthon's Lempriere.Pompei, (cited § 226) p. 213.-H. Ch. Genelli, das Theater zu Athen, hinsichtlich auf Architectur, Scenerie und Darstellungskunst. Berl. 1818. 4.-Boindin, du Theatre des Anciens, in Hist. de l'Acad. des Inser. &c. vol. 1. p. 136, with plate.-Groddeck, De theatri Græci partibus, &c. in Wolf's Liter. Analekten, vol. 11. p. 99.-For notices of remains of particular theatres, consult Clarke's Travels, Gell's Itinerary, Dodwell's Class. Tour, &c. Cf. § 243.-Respecting the Odea, see Martini, cited § 65.-See also P. V. § 107 ss. § 58 ss.

236. The Gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercises, first introduced at Lacedæmon, became afterwards common in the Greek cities, and were adopted among the Romans. They consisted of several buildings, or particular parts, which were united together, and thus formed often very spacious structures capable of holding many thousand persons. The principal Gymnasia of Athens were three; that of the Lyceum, that of the Cynosarges, and that of the Academy. (Cf. § 74.)

The following description notices the principal parts of the ancient Gymnasium or Palæstra; it is adapted to the plan, which is given, after Vitruvius, in Plate XIII. fig. 4.-The upper portion of the figure represents the eastern end, on which was the principal entrance. The shaded square, with the arrow in it pointing to the left side, is the Peristylium, which was also called the Palestra, the place for wrestling; including the Sphæristerium, or place for playing ball (quigiorgior). Around this were the Porticos (ro), with seats (dpa). Around these were various rooms; Halls, where philosophers and others might enjoy intellectual entertainment, a, a; the Ephebeum (prior), b, where the youth attended to preparatory exercises; the Coryceum (zoorzetor), c, so called, it is said, from its having a sack of sand suspended from the roof for some gymnastic purpose; this is by some considered as the same room with the Apodyterium (ùæodvr,qtor), or room for undressing; the Eleothesium (ikαiodiorov, akɛTTOO), f, the room for anointing the wrestlers, or such as had bathed; the Conisterium (zoviotigior), where the dust was kept for sprinkling those that had been anointed. There were also rooms for bathing, in cold or hot water, as, e, g, k, i, called by the Romans Frigida rium, Tepidarium, Laconicum; also a room, h, for the stove. The Stadium (orúdov), o, is here placed on the north side of the structure. On the south

and west were the Xuoro, covered places designed for exercise in bad weath er; and the Xvoru, which were walks open at top, and designed for exercise in pleasant weather. This structure is about one stadium square.

See Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. viii. - Potter's Archæol. Græc. bk. viii. Boyd's edition, p. 42; where is a plan of the remains of the Gymnasium at Ephesus.-Stieglitz Archæologie der Baukunst. Weimar, 1801. — The details are derived from Vitruvius, on Architecture, 5th bk. Cf. P. II. § 498.

$237. Porticos (otoα, porticus) were very common and important works of Greek and Roman architecture, and were constructed either alone by themselves, or in connection with other buildings, temples, theatres, baths, market-places, and the like. They served at the same time for protection against the sun and rain, for secure and convenient public promenades, for common places of resort where friends might meet, and where philosophers, especially the Peripatetics, imparted instruction. They consisted of columns or pillars, with greater or less spaces between them (intercolumnia), where statues were often fixed, while the interior was decorated with paintings. They were not always covered above, but were generally long and spacious. There was one at Rome a thousand paces in length, and thence termed Porticus Miliaria. One of the principal at Athens was that styled Pacile. On the paintings in the Pacile, cf. Harris, Miscellanies. vol. iv. p. 264.—See § 74.

§ 238. There were three forms of pillars (ora, orú201) in use among the Greeks, commonly called the three orders of architecture; the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric exhibits the greatest simplicity and solidity; the Ionic has proportions more agreeable and beautiful; the Corinthian is most highly ornamented, and was less frequently employed in large and public buildings. The Tuscan and Composite orders are not of Grecian origin; the former was, as its name imports, from Etruria; the latter was of Roman invention. 1. Although a particular description of the distinguishing marks of the different orders may belong more properly to the theory of architecture than to its archeology, yet the classical scholar should have some information on the subject. On this account the Plate VI a. is inserted; and the following remarks and explanations of terms are given. They are necessarily brief; but it is hoped that they may serve to excite, in the minds of such as may use this Manual, more interest than classical scholars of our country have usually felt in cultivating the taste in reference to an art so noble and elevating.

The front of any edifice, claiming notice as a production of the architectural art, is called its farade (fas-sade). This, when viewed perpendicularly, presents three parts, which are readily distinguished; the columns, which usually first strike the eye of the observer, and which form the middle part; the pedestal, which forms the lower part, and supports the columns; and the entablature, which is the upper part, and rests upon the columns. These three parts may be noticed and discriminated in an instant by glancing at fig. 17, or fig. 18, in Plate VII.; or at fig. 1, or fig. 3, in Plate XVI. Two of these parts, the column and the entablature, are seen in the figures f, g, h, i, j, and k, in Plate VI a. In some ancient edifices, constructed after the art began to decline, a portion of the pedestal directly under each column, and also a portion of the entablature directly above it, were made more prominent than the remaining portions extending between the columns; thus forming an appearance which is exhibited in fig. 1, of Plate VI a. in which the proper column and those more prominent portions of the pedestal and entablature, taken together, seem to form merely a column or pillar; a peculiarity which in part has occasioned, in modern times, the absurd mistake of making the squared prominence of the entablature a part of the column itself, and then placing another entablature above it. -Each of the parts already named is subdivided again into three other parts. The pedestal, also called the stylobate, is divided, as may be seen in fig. 1, into the plinth, r, at the very bottom; the die, d, in the middle; and the cornice, or surbase, co, at the top. The column consists, as may be seen in fig. k, of the base, B, resting on the cornice of the pedestal; the shaft, s, the middle and longest part; and the capital, c, the ornamented portion at the top. The entablature includes the architrave or epistylium, ar, the lower portion; the frieze, F, in the middle; and the cornice, co, at the top. To the different parts above named various moldings may be attached, which need not be described. The pediment of a building is the triangular face above the entablature; formed by the cornice of the entablature and the projecting extremities of the two sloping sides that make up the roof (see Plate XVI. fig. 1.); these projections are sometimes called the cornice of the pediment, and the flat triangular portion between them is called the tympanum. This part of the edifice was often richly adorned with statues and bas-reliefs.