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themselves, but the sounds by which these objects are indicated to the ear in our spoken language. The exact time of this most useful invention cannot be ascertained; but passages in the Bible, in the writings of Moses (Ex. xvii. 14), and the book of Job (xix. 23, 24), where it is spoken of as well known, prove its existence at a very early period. It is impossible to decide who was its author, or even to what people the honor of its origin belongs. Probably it may be claimed by the Assyrians or the Egyptians, their social organization having been the most ancient. The Greeks and Romans generally ascribed the invention of letters to the Phoenicians.

"Some think letters were perfectly known before the confusion of Babel, and imagine them to have been in common use in the antediluvian world (cf. § 6), and that Noah and his family brought them into the new world, in which they have been continued through a vast variety of changes until now. Some attribute the invention to Moses, others to Abraham, others to Abel, and some of course, to Adam. The Jewish Rabbins say, God created them on the evening of the first Sabbath."

Adam Clarke, Succession of Sacred Literature. Lond. 1830. 2 vols. 8.-This writer maintains, that alphabetic writing was of divine origin; being taught to Moses by God when he wrote with his own finger the Decalogue on the tables of stone.-Rollin also considers the art of writing as of divine origin. "Only God could teach mankind to establish certain figures to signify all sounds or words." See vol. 2d, p. 459, of his Ancient Hist. as cited 32. 1.Cf. Murphy's Tacitus, vol. 2d, p. 416 of ed. Boston, 1832.-Also Astle and Hug, as cited § 32.2.

§ 20. While the art of writing was known to but few nations, and only to particular individuals in these, its use was rare, except upon public monuments, where the letters were generally engraved on stone, metal, or wood. Such substances were the first employed for the purpose of writing; afterwards were used skins, bark, leaves (especially of the palm-tree), tablets covered with wax, ivory, linen, parchments, and the Egyptian papyrus, prepared from the fibres of the plant of that name. The chisel, style, pencil, and reed were anciently the most common instruments for writing; the place of the last was first yielded to the quill in more recent times. It was common to proceed from right to left, rather than from left to right as in modern practice.

21. The contents of the first writings, both on monuments and in books, were historical. Letters, on their invention, were naturally applied to commemorate remarkable events upon pillars, altars, pyramids, obelisks, and the like, and to record the sayings and tales which had hitherto been transmitted orally from one generation to another. As this historical matter generally received something of the form of poetry in oral communication, it resulted of course that poetical tales were written earlier than narratives in prose. Even moral and political maxims were framed into song, and accompanied with music. Of all books now in existence, the writings of Moses and the book of Job are the most ancient, although many probably were written before these. Whatever claims have been urged for the antiquity of any other books, they are all certainly of later origin.

Much has been said by some respecting the high antiquity of the records among oriental nations. But more full investigation proves, that there is nothing authentic in their histories belonging to a very early date. A distinguished scholar, Klaproth, has given, as the result of a thorough examination of the subject, that there is no hope of finding, among the Asiatics, materials for the early history of man, beyond what is found in the books of Moses. He remarks, that the history of ancient nations is naturally divided

into three parts; (1) mythological, which may contain some portion of truth enveloped in an impenetrable veil of allegories and fables; (2) uncertain, in which the main facts are true and the personages real, but the chronology undetermined; and (3) true, in which the facts and the time are clearly and satisfactorily recorded. The true or certain history of the Hindoos does not reach back so far as the time of Christ, and that of China extends not quite 800 years before Christ, and even the uncertain history of these, which are the most ancient of the Asiatic nations, does not go much beyond the time of the Mosaic deluge, or between 2000 and 3000 years before Christ. See Christian Spectator, vol. vii. p. 544.

22. By the aid of these and other helps, scientific knowledge among ancient nations gradually became more various and general. But not until a comparatively late period could it receive a systematic form, in which general principles were separated from particular facts and perceptions, and arranged according to some regular method or properly scientific classification. Here necessity was the first teacher, and conducted human intelligence to those truths and sciences, which were most indispensable to the supply of human wants, and most useful in advancing the improvement of social life. Such were especially medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and geography.

623. The natural instinct for self-preservation and for guarding against every thing, which threatens danger to health and life, occasioned the first observations and rules of medicine. Various accidental opportunities for such observations and experience as constituted its original foundation, were presented while men used only vegetable food. It was long, however, before the art of medicine was reduced to definite principles, and became an object of special attention by a particular class or profession. The Assyrians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians were the first to cultivate it; although the time of its being brought into any regular or scientific form, cannot be accurately determined. The art was at first directed more especially to external maladies, and anatomy probably owes its origin to the care and healing of wounds.

Th. Sprengel, Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneykunde. Halle, 1821-28. 5 vols. 8. 3d ed. There is a French translation (from the 2d ed.) entitled Histoire de la Medicine, &c. Par. 1815. 9 vols. 8.-W. Royston, Rise and Progress of the Medical Arts. Lond. 1818. 8.-Le Clerc, Histoire de la Medicine. Amst. 1723. 4.-T. Mason Good, History of Medicine. Lond. 1795. 12.-Wm. Hamilton, History of Medicine, Surgery, and Anatomy. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 12.

$ 24. Of mathematical sciences arithmetic seems to have been the most ancient. It probably consisted at first only of a few simple operations, of which no theory had been formed. The first organization of civil society and division of property required the use of numbers, weight, and measure. The practical part of this science therefore unquestionably must be very ancient, and probably existed first among the Egyptians and Phoenicians, whose commerce and navigation rendered its assistance indispensable. This must have been the case also with the Babylonians, on account of their early attention to astronomy and chronology. Pebbles, seeds of grain, and the like, were used as the first helps in enumeration; but ere long certain written characters were employed as indicative of numbers; of which there are various traces upon the earliest Egyptian monuments. See Montucla, Histoire des Mathematiques.-Ch. Bossut, Histoire des Mathematiques, Par, 1810. 2 vols. 8. Translated by Bonnycastle, Lond. 1803. 8.

25. The origin of astronomy likewise belongs to the earliest periods, since some of its truths are necessary for the dividing and reckoning of time, and not only in the management of navigation, but also in the orderly arrangement of civil business, and in all the labors of agriculture. The Egyptians, and the Babylonians and Chaldeans especially, were allured to the study of the heavens by the mildness of their climate and the extent and openness of their hori

The early origin of astrology, which was so prevalent among the Chaldeans, is full proof of their early observation of the stars. And the most ancient civil histories show, that the idea of the constellations, and even the discovery of the planets was a very early attainment of man.

See Ideler, Untersuchung ueber d. Ursp. und. d. Bedeut. d. Sternnamen. Berl. 1809. 8.-J. S. Bailly, Histoire de l'Astronomie ancienne. Par. 1781. 4.-Delambre, Histoire de l'Astronomie. Par. 1817. 2 vols. 4.-Cassini, on the origin of Astronomy, in the Mem, de l'Acad. des Sciences, vol. viii.-History of Astronomy, in the Library of Useful Knowledge.

26. Geometry, in its practice, is very old, but was originally limited to a few elementary principles and manual operations. It was at first probably confined to longimetry, or the measuring of lengths and straight lines, which would be indispensable in the rudest attempts at building. Planimetry, or the measuring of surfaces, was more difficult, and required for its discovery a greater degree of improvement and attention. The first occasion for it seems to have been the division of lands. Stereometry, or the science of measuring solid bodies, was probably last in the order of discovery, although the invention of the balance, early in use, presupposes it. In these branches of science, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians also led the way. Several mechanical instruments must undoubtedly be referred to a very high antiquity, as, for instance, the balance, the lever, and also the sledge and the wheel carriage.

27. The origin of geography must be ascribed to the necessity, which would soon be felt, of determining the situations and distance of countries already known and inhabited. The use of certain marks or memorials for recognizing places visited and left, the tracing of journeys from one spot to another, and the establishing of public routes, all conduced to a development of this branch of knowledge. Of its existence to some extent, there is proof both in the conquests, and in the travels by sea and by land, which took place in the earliest times. It was however then, as in fact it was in the later and more enlightened periods of antiquity, exceedingly limited and defective. Neither the historical and statistical, nor the physical and mathematical parts of this science were so regularly and carefully cultivated as were other sciences.

J. Blair, History of Geography. Lond. 1784, 12.—J, R. Joly, Ancienne Geographie, comp. a la moderne. Par. 1801. 2 vols. 8.-W. Vincent, Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean. Lond. 1807. 2 vols. 4.-C. Hawkins, Observations on the Tin Trade of the Ancients. Lond. 1811. 8.-M'Pherson's Annals of Commerce, Lond. 1805. 4. vols. 4.— J. P. Gosselin, Recherches sur la Geographie Systematique et positive des anciens, pour servir de base a l'histoire de la Geographie Ancienne. Par. 1794. 4. vols. 4.-Also, Recherches sur la Geographie Ancienne, in the Mem. de l'Institut Royal, Classe d' Hist. et Lit. Ancienne, vol. i. p. 41.-Especially, M. C. Sprengel, Geschichte der wichtigsten geographischen Entdeckungen. Halle, 1792. 2d. ed.

28. It appears from the foregoing remarks, that the first seat, and, as it were, the cradle, of the sciences was in Asia and Egypt. The cause is to be found in the numerous population of the coun

tries, and the early organization of their civil state, so that the primary wants of life were easily supplied, and the human mind enjoyed freedom and leisure for improvement. These countries also were not disturbed by tumult and war; Egypt particularly enjoyed a long period of happy tranquillity. The intercourse of the Phoenicians with other people, by means of their commerce and navigation, was peculiarly favorable to their advancement in knowledge. In general, however, the progress in the arts and sciences was far less rapid in the first ages, than afterwards. The proper helps were comparatively few, and there was especially wanting the means of an easy and ready intercommunication of knowledge, until the invention of alphabetic writing furnished one so appropriate and so useful.

II. The importance and usefulness of a knowledge of classical literature and art.

29. From Asia and Egypt the arts and sciences were introduced into Greece. Here they attained that culture and perfection, which renders ancient history and literature so agreeable and so valuable a branch of modern knowledge. Through the Greeks, the Romans afterwards came into possession of the same treasure. These two pations preeminently distinguished themselves by their merits and accomplishments in literature and the fine arts. Hence it is that there is so much in what pertains to Greece and Rome, that is worthy of our admiration and study.

Much has been written both for and against classical studies. The various arguments cannot be presented here. But some references ought to be given. 1. Shortly after the revival of letters the famous question respecting the comparative merits of the ancients and moderns began to be agitated. The earliest writers were Italian. In France the controversy began in 1687, and advocates were found for both sides. In England the discussion commenced shortly after the formation of the Royal Society, and soon called forth eminent writers. In Germany the subject has not been much canvassed, except as involved in the controversy of the Humanists and Philanthropists.

The following references pertain to the controversy.-In Italy; A. Tassoni, Pensieri diversi. Carp. 1620. 4. (10th B.)-S. Lancelotto, L'oggidi, ovvero gl'ingegni moderni non inferiori a'passati. Ven. 1658. 8.-P. Beni, Comparazione di Tasso con Homero, &c. Pad. 1612. 4. -In France. Ch. Perrault, Le Siecle de Louis le Grand. 1687. By Same, Parallele des Anc. et Modernes. Par. 1688.-Longepierre, Disc. sur les Anciens. Par. 1687. 12.-P. D. Huet, Lettre sur le merite des Anc. et Mod. (in his Pieces fug. d'Hist. et de Litt. Par. 1702. 12.)Boileau, Reflex. Crit. in his Trans. of Longinus. Par. 1694. 12.-Tourneil, Disc. de la fameuse Quest. sur le Mer. des Anc. et des Mod. (in his Works. Par. 1721. 4.)-La Motte, Disc. sur Homere, (in his Works. Par. 1754. 12.)—Gedoyn, Comp. merits of ancients and moderns, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 80.-Mad. Dacier, Des causes de la corrupt. du gout. Par. 1714. 12.In England. Sir Wm. Temple, Essay upon the ancient and modern learning,-in his Miscellanies. Lond. 1696. 8.-Wm. Wotton, Reflect, on anc. and mod. Learning. Lond. 1705. 8. -Swift, Battle between ancient and modern Books, in his Works. N. York. 1812. 24 vols. 12. (3d vol. p. 200.)—Addison, Disc. upon anc. and mod. Learning. Lond. 1739. 4.-See also J. Dennis, Advancement and Reformation of mod. poetry. Lond. 1701. 8. In Germany. Haller, Quantum Antiqui eruditione et industria antecellant Modernos. Bern. 1734. 4.-J. B. Carpzow, De antiq. et recent, doctrinæ compar. Helmst. 1748. 4.-G. E. Groddeck, Ueb. d. Vergleich. d. alter. besond. d. griech. mit der deutschen und neuern schoenen Lit. &c. Berl. 1788. 8.

2. Liberal learning was designated among the Romans by the term humanitas. Hence, on the revival of letters, the study of classical literature was very naturally called studium humanitatis. In Germany the lovers and advocates of the ancient classics received the name of Humanists (Humanisten); and their views on this subject were followed in the general system of education, until the middle of the last century. After that period, different views

were advocated by a class of reformers in education, who obtained the name of Philanthropists; several of whom established schools on their peculiar principles and called them Philanthropina. Basedow, the leader of the Philanthropists, opened his school at Dessau in 1774. Salzmann opened another at Schnepfenthal in 1784. Classical studies were nearly excluded from their system. In other respects also they proposed to amend the former modes of instruction.

The views of the Philanthropists are presented and advocated in the following works; Basedow's Elementarwerk, 1774.-Campe's Revisionswerk. Hamburg, 1785 ss. 16 vols. 8. (a sort of periodical.)-Trapp's Pædagogik, 1780. and Ueber der Unterricht in Sprachen. Brunsw. 1788. 8.—Cf. J. Weitzel, Was soll man lernen? Oder Zweck des unterricht. Lpz. 1828. 12. contending that in European schools, too much time is devoted to Latin and Greek.The views of the Humanists in the following; Funk, Ueber den Nutzen richtig getriebener Philologie. 1784.-Niethammer, Streit des Philanthropismus und des Humanismus. Jena, 1808.8.— For a fuller notice on this subject, Schwartz's Erziehungs-lehre, vol. 2d.-Cf. American Journal of Education, New Series, vol. i. No. 6.

3. The utility of classical studies has been strongly controverted in this country. But the public conviction is evidently settling firmly in their favor. The Greek and Latin classics are now considered as indispensable in a good education, more generally than before the recent discussions of the question. The following are some of the many pieces relating to this topic. T. Grimke, Address bef. Lit, and Phil. Soc. of S. Carolina. Charleston, 1827.-Rumford, (signature of unknown writer) in the Boston Centinel, 1825, or 6.-Paz (signature of an anonymous writer), on the Course of Study in the Oneida Institute, N. Y. Observer, Vol. XII. 1834.-Bib. Repository, Oct. 1832. Amer. Jour. of Science, Vol. XV. p. 297.-Chris. Spec. 1826, p. 456.-M. Stuart, Quar. Journal Amer. Ed. Soc. July, 1828.-R. B. Patton, in the Bib. Repository, No. xxv. Jan. 1837. p. 46.— J. Packard, in Bib. Repository, No. xxix. Jan. 1838. p. 28.-See also Beecher's Plea for Colleges. 1:36. 18.

For an account of classical learning in this country in the last century, see Miller, Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century, New York, 1803. 2 vols. 8.

4. Respecting the peculiar excellence and spirit of the ancient classics, we refer to the following.

Abbe Dubos, Reflections eritiques sur la Poesie et la Peinture. Transl. by Nugent. Lond. 1743. 3 vols. 8.—A. Blackwall, Introduction to the classics. Lond. 1727. 8; publ. also in Latin under the title, De Præstantia Class. Auct. Lips. 1735. 8.-G. Manwaring, On the Classicks. Lond. 1737. 8.-G. F. Gellert, sammtl. Schriften. Th. 5th.-D. Jenisch, Geist der Alten. Berl. 1789. 8.-We may add also, on the utility of classical learning,-Gregory's Letters, Phil. 1809. -Vic. Knoz, Liberal Education, or Pract. Treatise on the methods of acquiring useful and polite learning. Lond. 1789. 2 vols. 8. (in the Introduction.)-D. G. Hubler, Werth der class. Schriftsteller in Rucksicht auf Bildung des Geistes, &c. Bresl. 1800. 8.-Bitaube, Sur l'etude des anciens, Mem. de l'Institut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. Vol. i. p. 259.-Fuhrmann, Kl. Handbuch, p. 5-9, as cited below (P. II. § 7. 9).

30. In what we term the Archeology of Literature and Art, among the Greeks and Romans, it is not designed to enter into very minute details. The object will be to give a correct general view of the subject, presenting the most important circumstances of the origin and progress of refinement in these nations, and enabling the reader to form a just idea of the actual state of letters and arts among them, as well as of the monuments which they have left to posterity. This object cannot be accomplished fully, if the history of knowledge and art is wholly separated from what may be called their antiquities.

31. The utility of such archæological information cannot be questioned. It furnishes us with the best illustrations of many passages and allusions in the Greek and Roman authors. It helps us to understand the peculiar excellences and beauties of their writings and those also of the works of art. It puts us in a situation to form more correct opinions on these and kindred topics. In short, it serves in respect to our own literary taste, not only to secure to it a solid basis, but to impart refinement and delicacy.

§ 32 u. The following works may be consulted for further details on the subjects presented in this introduction, and likewise on some of the topics of the subsequent archæological sketches.

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